The impact of sexual orientation on how men experience disordered eating and drive for muscularity

References

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.
   Google Scholar
• Austin, S. B., Ziyadeh, N., Kahn, J. A., Camargo, C. A., Jr, Colditz, G. A., & Field, A. E. (2004). Sexual orientation, weight concerns, and eating-disordered behaviors in adolescent girls and boys. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(9), 1115–1123. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000131139.93862.10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bankoff, S. M., Richards, L. K., Bartlett, B., Wolf, E. J., & Mitchell, K. S. (2016). Examining weight and eating behavior by sexual orientation in a sample of male veterans. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 68, 134–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.03.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berg, K. C., Peterson, C. B., Frazier, P., & Crow, S. J. (2011). Convergence of scores on the interview and questionnaire versions of the eating disorder examination: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Assessment, 23(3), 714–724. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023246
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blashill, A. J. (2010). Elements of male body image: Prediction of depression, eating pathology and social sensitivity among gay men. Body Image, 7(4), 310–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.07.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bodell, L. P., Wildes, J. E., Cheng, Y., Goldschmidt, A. B., Keenan, K., Hipwell, A. E., & Stepp, S. D. (2018). Associations between race and eating disorder symptom trajectories in black and white girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 46(3), 625–638.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boehm, I., Finke, B., Tam, F. I., Fittig, E., Scholz, M., Gantchev, K., Roessner, V., & Ehrlich, S. (2016). Effects of perceptual body image distortion and early weight gain on long-term outcome of adolescent anorexia nervosa. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 25(12), 1319–1326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-016-0854-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brennan, D. J., Crath, R., Hart, T. A., Gadalla, T., & Gillis, L. (2011). Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating among men who have sex with men in Canada. International Journal of Men’s Health, 10(3), 253–268. https://doi.org/10.3149/jmh.1003.253
   Google Scholar
• Brennan, D. J., Craig, S. L., & Thompson, D. E. (2012). Factors associated with a drive for muscularity among gay and bisexual men. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 14(1), 1–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, T. A., & Keel, P. K. (2015). A randomized controlled trial of a peer co-led dissonance-based eating disorder prevention program for gay men. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 74, 1–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sage Focus Editions, 154, 136–136.
   Google Scholar
• Byrne, B. M. (1994). Structural equation modeling with EQS and EQS/Windows: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Calzo, J. P., Blashill, A. J., Brown, T. A., & Argenal, R. L. (2017). Eating disorders and disordered weight and shape control behaviors in sexual minority populations. Current Psychiatry Reports, 19(8), 49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-017-0801-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carey, M. A., Kupeli, N., Knight, R. E., Troop, N., Jenkinson, P. M., & Preston, C. E. J. (2019). Eating disorder examination questionnaire (EDE-Q): Norms and psychometric properties in UK females and males. Psychological Assessment, 31(7), 839–850. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000703
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlat, D. J., Camargo, C. A., & Herzog, D. B. (1997). Eating disorders in males: A report on 135 patients. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(8), 1127–1132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohn, L., Murray, S. B., Walen, A., & Wooldridge, T. (2016). Including the excluded: Males and gender minorities in eating disorder prevention. Eating Disorders, 24(1), 114–120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 233–255.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diamond, L. M. (2014). I was wrong! Men are pretty darn sexually fluid too [Paper presentation].Presentation at the Sexuality Preconference of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Austin, TX.
   Google Scholar
• Drummond, M. J. (2002). Men, body image, and eating disorders. International Journal of Men’s Health, 1(1), 89–103.
   Google Scholar
• Drummond, M. J. (2005). Men’s bodies: Listening to the voices of young gay men. Men and Masculinities, 7(3), 270–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X04271357
   Google Scholar
• Drummond, M. J. (2010). Younger and older gay men’s bodies. Gay and Lesbian Issues and Psychology Review, 6(1), 31–41.
   Google Scholar
• Duggan, S. J., & McCreary, D. R. (2004). Body image, eating disorders, and the drive for muscularity in gay and heterosexual men: The influence of media images. Journal of Homosexuality, 47(3–4), 45–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairburn, C. G., & Beglin, S. J. (1994). Assessment of eating disorders: Interview or self‐report questionnaire? The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 16(4), 363–370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., Doll, H. A., Norman, P., & O’Connor, M. (2000). The natural course of bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder in young women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57(7), 659–665.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairburn, C. G., & Beglin, S. J. (2008). Eating disorder examination questionnaire. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy and Eating Disorders, 309, 313.
   Google Scholar
• Feldman, M. B., & Meyer, I. H. (2007). Eating disorders in diverse lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40(3), 218–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filiault, S. M., & Drummond, M. J. (2009). Methods and methodologies: Investigating gay men’s body image in Westernized cultures. Critical Public Health, 19(3–4), 307–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/09581590802626463
   Google Scholar
• Gigi, I., Bachner-Melman, R., & Lev-Ari, L. (2016). The association between sexual orientation, susceptibility to social messages and disordered eating in men. Appetite, 99, 25–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goel, N. J., Burnette, C. B., Weinstock, M., & Mazzeo, S. E. (2022). Eating disorder examination‐questionnaire: Evaluating factor structures and establishing measurement invariance with Asian/Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, Black, and White American college men. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 55(4), 481–493. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23696
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey, J. A., & Robinson, J. D. (2003). Eating disorders in men: Current considerations. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 10(4), 297–306. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026357505747
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatfield, E., & Sprecher, S. (1986). Mirror, mirror: The importance of looks in everyday life. Suny Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hilbert, A., De Zwaan, M., & Braehler, E. (2012). How frequent are eating disturbances in the population? Norms of the eating disorder examination-questionnaire. PloS One, 7(1), e29125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz-Wise, S. L. (2015). Sexual fluidity in young adult women and men: Associations with sexual orientation and sexual identity development. Psychology & Sexuality, 6(2), 189–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2013.876445
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keizer, A., Smeets, M. A., Dijkerman, H. C., Uzunbajakau, S. A., van Elburg, A., & Postma, A. (2013). Too fat to fit through the door: First evidence for disturbed body-scaled action in anorexia nervosa during locomotion. PloS One, 8(5), e64602. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0064602
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klimek, P., Murray, S. B., Brown, T., Gonzales, M.IV, & Blashill, A. J. (2018). Thinness and muscularity internalization: Associations with disordered eating and muscle dysmorphia in men. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 51(4), 352–357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavender, J. M., De Young, K. P., & Anderson, D. A. (2010). Eating disorder examination questionnaire (EDE-Q): Norms for undergraduate men. Eating Behaviors, 11(2), 119–121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legenbauer, T., Vocks, S., Schäfer, C., Schütt-Strömel, S., Hiller, W., Wagner, C., & Vögele, C. (2009). Preference for attractiveness and thinness in a partner: Influence of internalization of the thin ideal and shape/weight dissatisfaction in heterosexual women, heterosexual men, lesbians, and gay men. Body Image, 6(3), 228–234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippa, R. A. (2007). The preferred traits of mates in a cross-national study of heterosexual and homosexual men and women: An examination of biological and cultural influences. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36(2), 193–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCreary, D. R. (2007). The drive for muscularity scale: Description, psychometrics, and research findings. In J. K. Thompson & G. Cafri (Eds.), The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives (pp. 87–106). American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Morrison, M. A., Morrison, T. G., & Sager, C. (2004). Does body satisfaction differ between gay men and lesbian women and heterosexual men and women? A meta-analytic review. Body Image, 127–138.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Murray, S. B., Griffiths, S., & Mond, J. M. (2016). Evolving eating disorder psychopathology: conceptualising muscularity-oriented disordered eating. British Journal of Psychiatry, 208, 414–415.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray, S. B., Nagata, J. M., Griffiths, S., Calzo, J. P., Brown, T. A., Mitchison, D., Blashill, A. J., & Mond, J. M. (2017). The enigma of male eating disorders: A critical review and synthesis. Clinical Psychology Review, 57, 1–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NEDA. (2016). Identity and eating disorders. Retrieved from https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/identity-eating-disorders
   Google Scholar
• Nicholson, L. (1990). Feminism/postmodernism (thinking gender). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Peterson, C. B., Crosby, R. D., Wonderlich, S. A., Joiner, T., Crow, S. J., Mitchell, J. E., Bardone-Cone, A. M., Klein, M., & le Grange, D. (2007). Psychometric properties of the eating disorder examination‐questionnaire: Factor structure and internal consistency. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40(4), 386–389. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.20373
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson, K. J., Mountford, V. A., & Sperlinger, D. J. (2013). Being men with eating disorders: Perspectives of male eating disorder service-users. Journal of Health Psychology, 18(2), 176–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose, J. S., Vaewsorn, A., Rosselli-Navarra, F., Wilson, G. T., & Weissman, R. S. (2013). Test-retest reliability of the eating disorder examination-questionnaire (EDE-Q) in a college sample. Journal of Eating Disorders, 1(1), 1–10.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Russell, C. J., & Keel, P. K. (2002). Homosexuality as a specific risk factor for eating disorders in men. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31(3), 300–306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siever, M. D. (1994). Sexual orientation and gender as factors in socioculturally acquired vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and eating disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(2), 252–260. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.62.2.252
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slade, P. D., & Russell, G. F. M. (1973). Experimental investigations of bodily perception in anorexia nervosa and obesity. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 22(2), 359–363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smink, F. R., Van Hoeken, D., & Hoek, H. W. (2012). Epidemiology of eating disorders: Incidence, prevalence and mortality rates. Current Psychiatry Reports, 14(4), 406–414.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, K. E., Mason, T. B., Murray, S. B., Griffiths, S., Leonard, R. C., Wetterneck, C. T., Smith, B. E. R., Farrell, N. R., Riemann, B. C., & Lavender, J. M. (2017). Male clinical norms and sex differences on the eating disorder inventory (EDI) and eating disorder examination questionnaire (EDE‐Q). The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 50(7), 769–775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sonneville, K. R., & Lipson, S. K. (2018). Disparities in eating disorder diagnosis and treatment according to weight status, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic background, and sex among college students. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 51(6), 518–526. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22846
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strother, E., Lemberg, R., Stanford, S. C., & Turberville, D. (2012). Eating disorders in men: Underdiagnosed, undertreated, and misunderstood. Eating Disorders, 20(5), 346–355.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swami, V., & Tovée, M. J. (2008). The muscular male: A comparison of the physical attractiveness preferences of gay and heterosexual men. International Journal of Men’s Health, 7(1), 59–71. https://doi.org/10.3149/jmh.0701.59
   Google Scholar
• Talbot, D., Smith, E., Cass, J., & Griffiths, S. (2019). Development and validation of the new somatomorphic matrix–male: A figural rating scale for measuring male actual–ideal body discrepancy. Psychology of Men & Masculinities, 20(3), 356–367. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000165
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiggemann, M., Martins, Y., & Kirkbride, A. (2007). Oh to be lean and muscular: Body image ideals in gay and heterosexual men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8(1), 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.8.1.15
   Google Scholar
• Yelland, C., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). Muscularity and the gay ideal: Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in homosexual men. Eating Behaviors, 4(2), 107–116.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar