Transforming Pacifists into Warmongers? Separatist Movement, State Repression, and the Politics of Framing Terrorism in Nigeria: Evidence from IPOB and Yoruba Nation’s Freedom Frontiers

Bibliography

• Adibe, J. (2017). Separatist agitations in Nigeria: Causes and trajectories. Brookings.
   Google Scholar
• Ahmad, E. (2011). Terrorism: theirs and ours. Seven Stories Press.
   Google Scholar
• Akinterinwa, B. (2020). International Law and the Making of a Yoruba Nation: Likely Scenarios of FG’s Actions and Reactions. ThisDay Newspaper.
   Google Scholar
• Altheide, D. (2013). Constructing psychological terror post 9/11. The Political Psychology of Terrorism Fears,
   Google Scholar
• Amnesty International. (2016a). Nigeria: ‘Bullets were raining everywhere’: Deadly repression of pro-Biafra activists. Amnesty International.
   Google Scholar
• Amnesty International. (2016b). Nigeria: Killing of unarmed pro-Biafra supporters by military must be urgently investigated. Amnesty International.
   Google Scholar
• Amnesty International. (2018). Amnesty International Report 2017/18: The state of the world’s human rights. Amnesty International.
   Google Scholar
• BBC (2021). Sunday Igboho: The Nigerian separatist who wants a Yoruba nation. BBC July 26.
   Google Scholar
• Bello, A. (1962). My Life. p. 133–135.
   Google Scholar
• Blakeley, R. (2017). Constructions of Terrorism (pp. 53–66). University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Boykoff, J. (2007). Limiting dissent: The mechanisms of state repression in the USA. Social Movement Studies, 6(3), 281–310.
   Google Scholar
• Boyle, K., & Englebert, P. (2006). The primacy of politics in separatist dynamics [Paper presentation] Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, San Diego.
   Google Scholar
• Brucker, C. (2019). Finding foreign friends: National self-determination and related norms as strategic resources during the Biafran War for Independence, 1967-70. NewEngland Journal of Public Policy, 31(2), 1–21.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, J., & Quinn, N. (2021). What’s Behind Growing Separatism in Nigeria? Council for Foreign Relations, August 3.
   Google Scholar
• Canel, M. J., & Gurrionero, M. G. (2016). Framing analysis, dramatism and terrorism coverage: politician and press responses to the Madrid airport bombing. Communication & Society, 29(4), 133.
   Google Scholar
• Chesterman, S. (2003). Humanitarian Intervention and Afghanistan. In J. M. Welsh (Ed.), Humanitarian Intervention and International Relations Oxford Academic.
   Google Scholar
• Coadγ, C. T. (2004). Terrorism (pp. 3–14). Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Cohan, J. A. (2002). Formulation of a State’s response to terrorism and state-sponsored terrorism. Pace International Law Review, 14, 77.
   Google Scholar
• Council of Foreign Relations (2022). The U.S. should not designate Nigeria’s IPOB a terrorist group. Council of Foreign Relations, February 10.
   Google Scholar
• Cram, I. (2006). Regulating the media: Some neglected freedom of expression issues in the United Kingdom’s counter-terrorism strategy. Terrorism and Political Violence, 18(2), 335–355.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daily Post. (2021a). I was arrested, tortured in Kenya for 8 days – Nnamdi Kanu discloses to lawyer, Daily Post, July 2.
   Google Scholar
• Daily Post. (2021b). Nigeria insecurity: Buhari’s fight bias, terrorists enjoying immunity – Festus Ogun, Daily Post, November 2.
   Google Scholar
• Daily Post. (2021c). Nigeria insecurity: Buhari’s fight bias, terrorists enjoying immunity – Festus Ogun, Daily Post, October 22.
   Google Scholar
• Druckman, J. N., & Nelson, K. R. (2003). Framing and deliberation: How citizens’ conversations limit elite influence. American Journal of Political Science, 47(4), 729–745.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dudouét, V. (2010). Mediating peace with proscribed armed groups. Special Report. United States. Institute of Peace.
   Google Scholar
• Egenuka, N. (2021). Why FG was quick to proscribe IPOB, but slow in forbidding killer herdsmen, lawyers say. The Guardian, December 07.
   Google Scholar
• English, R. (2019). Nationalism and Terrorism. In Erica Chenoweth, Richard English, Andreas Gofas, and Stathis N. Kalyvas (Eds.), The oxford handbook of terrorism (pp. 268–282). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Englund, S., Stohl, M., & Burchill, R., (eds.). (2017). Introduction: constructions of terrorism. In Constructions of terrorism (pp. 1–10). University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Entman, R. M. (2010). Framing media power. In Doing news framing analysis (pp. 347–371). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Enugu (1966). Eastern Region Ministry of Information. Nigerian Crisis.
   Google Scholar
• Erezi, D. (2022). UK authorities say IPOB not designated as terrorist organization. The Guardian, May 07.
   Google Scholar
• Fortier, J. (2021). East Timor: When state repression makes secession easier (1975-2002). Conflict Studies Quarterly, 35, 18-36.
   Google Scholar
• Gregory, D., Johnston R, Pratt G., Watts M., & Whatmore S. (Eds.). (2011). The dictionary of human geography. John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Guardian Newspaper. (2021). Ortom warns government on ‘double standards’ over security, urges justice, fairness. Guardian Newspaper September 24.
   Google Scholar
• Hale, H. E. (2008). A Theory of National Separatism in Domestic and Interstate Politics. In The Foundations of Ethnic Politics: Separatism of States and Nations in Eurasia and the World, 57–90. Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Haspeslagh, S. (2021). Proscribing peace: How listing armed groups as terrorists hurts negotiations. In Proscribing peace. Manchester University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, B. (2005). Terrorising the Rule of Law: The Policy and Practice of Proscription. Statewatch Analysis and the Policy Laundering Project.
   Google Scholar
• Hewitt, C. (2003). A Review of:“Framing Terrorism: The News Media, the Government and the Public. (Pippa N., Montague K., and Marion J. Eds.), Routledge. 321–pp. $32.95 paper.” (2006): 463464.
   Google Scholar
• Hoffmann, S. (2000). The furies: Violence and terror in the French And Russian revolutions. Foreign Affairs, 79(4), 158.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Home Office. (2020). Country Policy and Information Note Nigeria: Biafran separatists.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes, J. (2013). Chechnya: From nationalism to jihad. University of Pennsylvania Press.
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. (2003). From Self-determination Group to Vigilantism.
   Google Scholar
• International Crisis Group. (2015). Nigeria’s Biafran Separatist Upsurge.
   Google Scholar
• Iroegbu, S. (2016). Intersociety accuses FG, security agents of gross human rights abuses. This Day, May 2.
   Google Scholar
• Jarvis, L., & Legrand, T. (2018). The proscription or listing of terrorist organisations: Understanding, assessment, and international comparisons. Terrorism and Political Violence, 30(2), 199–215.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, H. (1980). The U.S. Government: A Political System on Trial. The Washington Post, July 6
   Google Scholar
• Jones, S. (2012). Papuan 'separatists’ vs Jihadi 'terrorists’: Indonesian policy dilemmas, Lecture by Sidney Jones at International Policy Studies program of Stanford University. Published by International Crisis Group.
   Google Scholar
• Kapitan, T. (2003). The terrorism of ‘terrorism. Terrorism and International Justice, 13, 47–66.
   Google Scholar
• Kingsbury, D. (2021). Separatism and the State. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Kwazema, M. (2021). The problem of the present in West Africa: Introducing a conceptual framework. Futures, 132, 102815.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamb, K. (2021). Indonesia designates Papuan separatists ‘terrorists’, The Straits Times, April 29,
   Google Scholar
• Lefebvre, S. (2003). Perspectives on Ethno-nationalist/Separatist Terrorism. Conflict Studies Research Centre, Royal Military Academy Sandhurst.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis, J. S. (2022). What drives support for separatism? Exposure to conflict and relative ethnic size in Biafra, Nigeria. Nations and Nationalism,
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mamah, E., Ujumadu, V., & Balogun, I. (2013). Ezu River: The unending mystery. Vanguard, 5 March.
   Google Scholar
• Marieke de, G. (2018). Proscription’s futures. Terrorism and Political Violence, 30(2), 336–355.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayah, E. (2016). Special report: Inside the massive extrajudicial killings in Nigeria’s South-East. Premium Times, June 8.
   Google Scholar
• Mbah, P., & Nwangwu, C. (2014). The counter-insurgence operations of the Joint Task Force and human rights abuses in northern Nigeria, 2011–2013. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 4(5), 67–78.
   Google Scholar
• Medvedeva, Y., & Hinnant, A. (2011). Terrorism coverage in the U.S. and Russian Newsweek. International Communication Research Journal, 1(46), 29–55.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, A. H. (Ed.). (1982). Terrorism, the Media, and the Law (p. 58). Transnational Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Moderan, O. (2021). Proliferation of armed non-state actors in the Sahel: Evidence of state failure? Italian Institute for International Political Studies, March 03.
   Google Scholar
• Muller, M. (2008). Terrorism, proscription and the right to resist in the age of conflict. Denning Law Journal, 20(1), 111–131.
   Google Scholar
• Nadarajah, S. (2009). Disciplining the diaspora: Tamil self-determination and the politics of proscription. 109–130.
   Google Scholar
• Norris, P., Montague K., and Marion J. (Eds.). (2004). Framing terrorism: The news media, the government and the public. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Nwangwu, C. (2022). Neo-biafra separatist agitations, state repression and insecurity in South-East, Nigeria. Society, 60(1), 40–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nwangwu, C., Onuoha, F. C., Nwosu, B. U., & Ezeibe, C. (2020). The political economy of Biafra separatism and post-war Igbo nationalism in Nigeria. African Affairs, 119(477), 526–551.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nwankpa, M. (2021). Labelling conflict groups in Nigeria: A comparative study of Boko Haram, Niger Delta, IPOB and Fulani militia. In Armed non-state actors and the politics of recognition (pp. 49–69). Manchester University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ojo, J. S. (2020). Governing “ungoverned spaces” in the foliage of conspiracy: Toward (re) ordering terrorism, from Boko Haram insurgency, Fulani militancy to banditry in northern Nigeria. African Security, 13(1), 77–110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ojo, J. S. (2022). The Changing Geography of Terror: Why is Jihadist Terrorism Escalating Southward in Nigeria. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholar.
   Google Scholar
• Ojo, J. S., Lamidi, K. O., David Odewale, A., Shiyanbade, B., & Ihemeje, G. (2020). Enemy within the State: The Pathology of Boko Haram Insurgency, Military Corruption, and Fallacy of Arms Procurement in Nigeria. International Journal of Public Administration, 43(12), 1068–1082.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ojo, J. S., & Lamidi, K. O. (2018). Biafra’s secessionist movement. Global encyclopedia of public administration, public policy, and governance. Cham: Springer
   Google Scholar
  . doi, 10, 978-3.
   Google Scholar
• Ojukwu, O. (1969). The Ahiara Declaration.
   Google Scholar
• Oyewole, S. (2019). The Fracturing of Pro-Biafra Nationalist Movements. African Conflict and Peacebuilding Review, 9(1), 1–23.
   Google Scholar
• Pokalova, E. (2010). Framing separatism as terrorism: Lessons from Kosovo. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 33(5), 429–447.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell, K. (2011). Framing Islam: An analysis of US media coverage of terrorism since 9/11. Communication Studies, 62(1), 90–112.
   Google Scholar
• Punch Newspaper. (2017). Court affirms IPOB’s proscription, designation as terrorist group. Punch Newspaper, May 27.
   Google Scholar
• Rapoport, D. (2006). Terrorism. In: Critical Concepts in Political Science (Vol. IV). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Reese, S. D., & Lewis, S. C. (2009). Framing the war on terror: The internalization of policy in the US press. Journalism, 10(6), 777–797.
   Google Scholar
• Rostow, N. (2001). Before and After: The Changed UN Response to Terrorism since September 11th. Cornell International Law Journal, 35(3), 4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, J. (2007). Chechnya: Russia’s ‘War on Terror., Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Ryabinin, Y. (2017). The basic causes of the contemporary separatism. Journal of Geography, Politics and Society, 7(1), 5–9.
   Google Scholar
• Sahara Reporters (2022). Again, President Buhari asks US, other Western allies to designate IPOB as terrorist group. Sahara Reporters, June 21.
   Google Scholar
• Sahara Reporters. (2020). Nnamdi Kanu Launches Eastern Security Network, Says Not Different From Amotekun, Miyetti Allah. Sahara Reporters, December 13.
   Google Scholar
• Sahara Reporters. (2021a). IPOB, Yoruba Nation Agitators Not Different From Boko Haram Terrorists – Speaker, Gbajabiamila. Sahara Reporters, September 15.
   Google Scholar
• Sahara Reporters. (2021b). Exclusive: Benin Republic Shuns Buhari’s Request For Sunday Igboho's extradition without trial, May Grant Him Bail Today. Sahara Reporters, July 21.
   Google Scholar
• Scheinin, M. (2005). Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms While Countering Terrorism. UN Commission on Human Rights.
   Google Scholar
• Schmid, A. P. (Ed.). (2001). Countering Terrorism through International Cooperation. International Scientific and Professional Advisory Council of the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Programme.
   Google Scholar
• Seemann, B. (2016). Bandits or Terrorists? Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung e.V. International Reports, April 4.
   Google Scholar
• Shinar, C. (2019). Chechens: Freedom fighters or terrorists? European Review, 27(1), 131–142.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, D. J. (2014). Corruption complaints, inequality and ethnic grievances in post-Biafra Nigeria. Third World Quarterly, 35(5), 787–802.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snetkov, A. (2007). The image of the terrorist threat in the official Russian press: the Moscow theatre crisis (2002) and the Beslan hostage crisis (2004). Europe-Asia Studies, 59(8), 1349–1365.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swirszcz, J. (2009). The role of Islam in Chechen national identity. Nationalities Papers, 37(1), 59–88.
   Google Scholar
• Tamuno, T. N. (1970). Separatist agitations in Nigeria since 1914. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(4), 563–584.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, C. C. (2020). Sacrifice as terror: The Rwandan genocide of 1994. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• The Guardian. (2021). That DSS attack on citizen Sunday Igboho. The Guardian, July 12.
   Google Scholar
• The Nations. (2021). Sunday Igboho storms Igangan over killings, attacks. The Nation, June 8.
   Google Scholar
• The Nations. (2022). Appeal Court ends Nnamdi Kanu’s trial, orders IPOB leader’s release. The Nation, October 14.
   Google Scholar
• The Nigerian Tribune. (2021). Outrage As FG Links Igboho With Boko Haram. The Nigerian Tribune, October 23.
   Google Scholar
• The Premium Time. (2017). Judge gives Nnamdi Kanu 12 conditions for bail. The Premium Time, April 25.
   Google Scholar
• The Sun (2017). How court ordered IPOB proscription. The Sun, September 20.
   Google Scholar
• Toft, M. D. (2010). The Geography of Ethnic Violence. Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Toros, H. (2008). “′We Don’t Negotiate with Terrorists!’: Legitimacy and Complexity in Terrorist Conflicts. ” Security Dialogue, 39(4), 407–426. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010608094035
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trenin, D. V., & Malashenko, A. (2010). Russia’s restless frontier: the Chechnya factor in post-Soviet Russia. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
   Google Scholar
• Ugorji, B. (2017). Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB): A Revitalized Social Movement in Nigeria. International Center for Ethno-Religious Mediation.
   Google Scholar
• UNHR. (2019). End of visit statement of the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions on her visit to Nigeria.
   Google Scholar
• Vanguard Newspaper. (2021). Tagging IPOB, other separatist groups as terrorists: Gbaja’s remarks signposts low level of intellectualism – Afenifere. Vanguard Newspaper, September 16.
   Google Scholar
• Walter, B. F. (2006). Building reputation: Why governments fight some separatists but not others. American Journal of Political Science, 50(2), 313–330.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, R. (2004). Secession as revolution. Homo Oeconomicus, 21(2), 372–395.
   Google Scholar