Enclosure, dispossession, and the green economy: new contours of internal displacement in Liberia and Sierra Leone?

References

• Abdullah, I. (1997). Bush path to destruction: The origin and character of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF/SL). Africa Development, 22, 45–76.
   Google Scholar
• Adams, W. M., & Hutton, J. (2007). People, parks, and poverty: Political ecology and biodiversity conservation. Conservation and Society, 5, 147–183.
   Google Scholar
• Agier, M. (2011). Managing the undesirables: Refugee camps and humanitarian government. Cambridge: Polity.
   Google Scholar
• Agrawal, A., & Narain, S. (1991). Global warming in an unequal world: A case of environmental colonialism. New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, D., & Grove, R. (Eds.). (1987). Conservation in Africa: People, policies, and practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Apostolopoulou, E., & Adams, W. M. (2015). Neoliberal capitalism and conservation in the post-crisis era: The dialectics of ‘green’ and ‘un-green’ grabbing in Greece and the UK. Antipode, 47, 15–35.10.1111/anti.v47.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atela, J. (2015). Carbon in Africa’s agricultural landscapes: A Kenyan case. In M. Leach, & I. Scoones (Eds.), Carbon conflicts and forest landscapes in Africa (pp. 79–93). New York and London: Routledge/Earthscan.
   Google Scholar
• Bayart, J. F., Ellis, S., & Hibou, B. (1999). The criminalization of the state in Africa. Oxford: James Currey.
   Google Scholar
• Benjaminsen, T. A., & Bryceson, I. (2012). Conservation, green/blue grabbing and accumulation by dispossession in Tanzania. Journal of Peasant Studies, 39, 335–355.10.1080/03066150.2012.667405
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berdal, M., & Malone, D. M. (2000). Introduction. In M. Berdal, & D. M. Malone (Eds.), Greed and grievance: Economic agendas in civil wars (pp. 1–18). Ottawa: International Development Research Centre (IDRC).
   Google Scholar
• Borras, S. M., McMichael, P., & Scoones, I. (2010). The politics of biofuels, land and agrarian change: Editors’ introduction. Journal of Peasant Studies, 37(4), 575–592.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borras, S. M., Hall, R., Scoones, I., White, B., & Wolford, W. (2011). Towards a better understanding of global land grabbing: An editorial introduction. Journal of Peasant Studies, 38, 209–216.10.1080/03066150.2011.559005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brockington, D. (2002). Fortress conservation: The preservation of the Mkomazi game reserve, Tanzania. Oxford: James Currey.
   Google Scholar
• Brockington, D. (2012). A radically conservative vision? The challenge of UNEP’s towards a green economy. Development and Change, 43, 409–422.10.1111/j.1467-7660.2011.01750.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brockington, D., & Igoe, J. (2006). Eviction for conservation: A global overview. Conservation and Society, 4, 424–470.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brottem, L., & Unruh, J. (2009). Territorial tensions: Rainforest conservation, postconflict recovery, and land tenure in Liberia. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 99, 995–1002.10.1080/00045600903202855
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brundtland Commission (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford UP.
   Google Scholar
• Bumpus, A. G., & Liverman, D. M. (2011). Carbon colonialism? Offsets, greenhouse gas reductions, and sustainable development. In R. Peet, P. Robbins, & M. Watts (Eds.), Global Political Ecology (pp. 203–224). London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Büscher, B. (2010). Derivative nature: Interrogating the value of conservation in ‘Boundless Southern Africa’. Third World Quarterly, 31, 259–276.10.1080/01436591003711983
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Büscher, B., & Davidov, V. (2016). Environmentally induced displacements in the ecotourism–extraction nexus. Area, 48, 161–167.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Büscher, B., Sullivan, S., Neves, K., Igoe, J., & Brockington, D. (2012). Towards a synthesized critique of neoliberal biodiversity conservation. Capitalism Nature Socialism, 23, 4–30.10.1080/10455752.2012.674149
   Google Scholar
• Cavanagh, C. J. (2017). Resilience, class, and the antifragility of capital. Resilience, 5, 110–128.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavanagh, C., & Benjaminsen, T. A. (2014). Virtual nature, violent accumulation: The ‘spectacular failure’ of carbon offsetting at a Ugandan National Park. Geoforum, 56, 55–65.10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.06.013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavanagh, C. J., & Benjaminsen, T. A. (2015). Guerrilla agriculture? A biopolitical guide to illicit cultivation within an IUCN Category II protected area. Journal of Peasant Studies, 42, 725–745.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavanagh, C. J., & Benjaminsen, T. A. (2017). Political ecology, variegated green economies, and the foreclosure of alternative sustainabilities. Journal of Political Ecology, 24, 200–341.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavanagh, C., & Himmelfarb, D. (2015). ‘Much in blood and money’: Necropolitical ecology on the margins of the Uganda protectorate. Antipode, 47, 55–73.10.1111/anti.v47.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cernea, M. M., & Schmidt-Soltau, K. (2006). Poverty risks and national parks: Policy issues in conservation and resettlement. World Development, 34, 1808–1830.10.1016/j.worlddev.2006.02.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chauveau, J. P., & Richards, P. (2008). West African insurgencies in agrarian perspective: Côte d’Ivoire and Sierra Leone compared. Journal of Agrarian Change, 8, 515–552.10.1111/joac.2008.8.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collier, P. (2002). Economic causes of civil conflict and their implications for policy. Washington, DC: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Collier, P., & Hoeffler, A. (1998). On economic causes of civil war. Oxford Economic Papers, 50, 563–573.10.1093/oep/50.4.563
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conservation International. (2013). Guinean forests of West Africa. Retrieved June 2, 2013, from https://www.conservation.org/where/priority_areas/hotspots/africa/Guinean-Forests-of-West-Africa/Pages/default.aspx
   Google Scholar
• Corson, C. (2011). Territorialization, enclosure and neoliberalism: Non-state influence in struggles over Madagascar’s forests. Journal of Peasant Studies, 38, 703–726.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corson, C., MacDonald, K. I., & Neimark, B. (2013). Grabbing ‘green’: Markets, environmental governance, and the materialization of natural capital. Human Geography: A New Radical Journal, 6(1), 1–15.
   Google Scholar
• Dowie, M. (2009). Conservation refugees: The hundred-year conflict between global conservation and native peoples. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. (2016). REDD+ Capacity Building in Sierra Leone. Retrieved May 25, 2016, from https://www.gcca.eu/national-programmes/africa/gcca-sierra-leone
   Google Scholar
• Fairhead, J., & Leach, M. (1996). Misreading the African landscape. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.10.1017/CBO9781139164023
   Google Scholar
• Fairhead, J., Leach, M., & Scoones, I. (2012). Green Grabbing: A new appropriation of nature? Journal of Peasant Studies, 39, 237–261.10.1080/03066150.2012.671770
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson, J. (2006). Global shadows. Durham: Duke UP.10.1215/9780822387640
   Google Scholar
• Gberie, L. (2005). A dirty war in West Africa: The RUF and the destruction of Sierra Leone. Bloomington, IN: Indiana UP.
   Google Scholar
• Geisler, C. (2003). A new kind of trouble: Evictions in Eden. International Social Science Journal, 55, 69–78.10.1111/issj.2003.55.issue-175
   Google Scholar
• Geisler, C., & De Sousa, R. (2001). From refuge to refugee: The African case. Public Administration and Development, 21, 159–170.10.1002/(ISSN)1099-162X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilfoy, K. (2014). Land grabbing and NGO advocacy in Liberia: A deconstruction of the ‘homogeneous community’. African Affairs, 114, 185–205.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Government of Sierra Leone. (2010). Strategy for the development of a climate change abatement economy: Introducing and implementing REDD/REDD+ in Sierra Leone. Freetown: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Green, K. E., & Adams, W. M. (2015). Green grabbing and the dynamics of local-level engagement with neoliberalization in Tanzania’s wildlife management areas. Journal of Peasant Studies, 42, 97–117.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grove, R. (1995). Green imperialism: Colonial expansion, tropical island Edens and the origins of environmentalism, 1600–1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Grove, R. (1997). Ecology, climate, and empire: Colonialism and global environmental history 1400–1940. Knapwell: White Horse Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hansen, T. B., & Stepputat, F. (2006). Sovereignty revisited. Annual Review of Anthropology, 35, 295–315.10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123317
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey, D. (2005). The new imperialism. Oxford: Oxford UP.
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman, D. (2011). The war machines. Durham: Duke UP.10.1215/9780822394488
   Google Scholar
• Humphreys, M., & Weinstein, J. (2004). What the fighters say: A survey of ex-combatants in Sierra Leone, June–August 2003. New York, NY: Centre on Globalization and Sustainable Development, Columbia University.
   Google Scholar
• Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre. (2003). Sierra Leone: Compilation of the information available in the global IDP database. Geneva: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre. (2007). Liberia: Focus for IDP returnees moves from conflict to development. A profile of the internal displacement situation. Geneva: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre. (2013). Internal displacement caused by conflict and violence. Retrieved May 31, 2013, from https://www.internal-displacement.org/IDMC_IDP-figures_2001-2010.pdf
   Google Scholar
• International Institute for Sustainable Development (2012). Conservation and Peacebuilding in Sierra Leone. Winnipeg: Author.
   Google Scholar
• International Union for the Conservation of Nature. (2012). Nature+: Towards a new era of conservation, sustainability, and nature-based solutions. Jeju, South Korea: Author.
   Google Scholar
• International Union for the Conservation of Nature and United Nations Environment Programme-World Conservation Monitoring Centre. (2012). The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). Cambridge: UNEP-WCMC. Retrieved June 1, 2013, from https://www.wdpa.org/Statistics.aspx
   Google Scholar
• IRIN (2013). Sierra Leone: Land deals beginning to stir discontent. Geneva: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Kaplan, R. (1994). The coming anarchy: How scarcity, crime, overpopulation, tribalism, and disease are rapidly destroying the social fabric of our planet. The Atlantic Monthly, 273(2). Retrieved July 14, 2017, from https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1994/02/the-coming-anarchy/304670/
   Google Scholar
• Kareiva, P., Lalasz, R., & Marvier, M. (2011). Conservation in the anthropocene. Breakthrough Journal, 2. Retrieved May 31, 2013, from https://breakthroughjournal.org/content/authors/peter-kareiva-robert-lalasz-an-1/conservation-in-the-anthropoce.shtml
   Google Scholar
• Keen, D. (2005). Conflict and collusion in Sierra Leone. Oxford: James Currey.
   Google Scholar
• Kelly, A. B. (2011). Conservation practice as primitive accumulation. Journal of Peasant Studies, 38, 683–701.10.1080/03066150.2011.607695
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kjekshus, H. (1977). Ecology control and economic development in East African History. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kopytoff, I. (1987). The African frontier: The reproduction of traditional African societies. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Le Billon, P. (2012). Wars of plunder: Conflicts, profits and the politics of resources. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leach, M., & Fairhead, J. (2000). Fashioned forest pasts, occluded histories? International environmental analysis in West African locales. Development and Change, 31, 35–59.10.1111/dech.2000.31.issue-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leach, M., & Scoones, I. (2013). Carbon forestry in West Africa: The politics of models, measures and verification processes. Global Environmental Change, 23, 957–967.10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.07.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leach, M., & Scoones, I. (2015). Political ecologies of carbon in Africa. In M. Leach, & I. Scoones (Eds.), Carbon conflicts and forest landscapes in Africa (pp. 1–42). New York and London: Routledge/Earthscan.
   Google Scholar
• Li, T. M. (2011). Centering labor in the land grab debate. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 38, 281–298.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, T. M. (2014). What is land? Assembling a resource for global investment. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 39, 589–602.10.1111/tran.2014.39.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lonsdale, J. (2015). Have tropical Africa’s nationalisms continued imperialism’s world revolution by other means? Nations and Nationalism, 21, 609–629.10.1111/nana.2015.21.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lunstrum, E., Bose, P., & Zalik, A. (2016). Environmental displacement: The common ground of climate change, extraction and conservation. Area, 48, 130–133.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Margulis, M. E., McKeon, N., & Borras, S. M. (2013). Land grabbing and global governance: Critical perspectives. Globalizations, 10(1), 1–23.10.1080/14747731.2013.764151
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marx, K. (1867/1976). Capital: A critique of political economy (Vol. 1). New York, NY: Penguin.
   Google Scholar
• Mbembe, A. (2001). On the postcolony. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Millar, G. (2015). Investing in peace: Foreign direct investment as economic restoration in Sierra Leone? Third World Quarterly, 36, 1700–1716.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Millar, G. (2016). Local experiences of liberal peace: Marketization and emergent conflict dynamics in Sierra Leone. Journal of Peace Research, 53, 569–581.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mokuwa, E., Voors, M., Bulte, E., & Richards, P. (2011). Peasant grievance and insurgency in Sierra Leone: Judicial serfdom as a driver of conflict. African Affairs, 110, 339–366.10.1093/afraf/adr019
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moran, M. H. (2006). Liberia. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.10.9783/9780812202847
   Google Scholar
• Munro, P. G., & van der Horst, G. (2016). Contesting African landscapes: A critical reappraisal of Sierra Leone’s competing forest cover histories. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 34, 706–724.
   Google Scholar
• Nel, A. (2015). ‘Zones of awkward engagement’ in Ugandan carbon forestry. In M. Leach, & I. Scoones (Eds.), Carbon conflicts and forest landscapes in Africa (pp. 94–107). New York and London: Routledge/Earthscan.
   Google Scholar
• Nel, A., & Hill, D. (2013). Constructing walls of carbon – the complexities of community, carbon sequestration and protected areas in Uganda. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 31, 421–440.10.1080/02589001.2013.802430
   Google Scholar
• Neumann, R. (1998). Imposing wilderness: Struggles over livelihood and nature preservation in Africa. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Oakland Institute (2011). Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Sierra Leone country report. Oakland, CA: Oakland Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Ong, A. (2006). Neoliberalism as exception. Durham: Duke University Press.10.1215/9780822387879
   Google Scholar
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2012). Green growth and developing countries: A summary for policymakers. Paris: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Peluso, N. L. (2012). What’s nature got to do with it? A situated historical perspective on socio-natural commodities. Development and Change, 43, 79–104.10.1111/j.1467-7660.2012.01755.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peluso, N. L., & Lund, C. (2011). New frontiers of land control: Introduction. Journal of Peasant Studies, 38, 667–681.10.1080/03066150.2011.607692
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters, K., & Richards, P. (2011). Rebellion and agrarian tensions in Sierra Leone. Journal of Agrarian Change, 11, 377–395.10.1111/j.1471-0366.2011.00316.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prudham, S. (2007). The fictions of autonomous invention: Accumulation by dispossession, commodification and life patents in Canada. Antipode, 39, 406–429.10.1111/anti.2007.39.issue-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reno, W. (1999). Warlord politics and African states. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
   Google Scholar
• Richards, P. (1998). Fighting for the rainforest: War, youth, and resources in Sierra Leone. Oxford: James Currey.
   Google Scholar
• Richards, P. (2005). To fight or to farm? Agrarian dimensions of the Mano River conflicts (Liberia and Sierra Leone). African Affairs, 104, 571–590.10.1093/afraf/adi068
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt-Soltau, K. (2003). Conservation-related resettlement in Central Africa: Environmental and social risks. Development and Change, 34, 525–551.10.1111/dech.2003.34.issue-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seshadri, K. R. (2008). When home is a camp: Global sovereignty, biopolitics, and internally displaced persons. Social Text, 26, 29–58.10.1215/01642472-2007-018
   Google Scholar
• Sikor, T., Auld, G., Bebbington, A. J., Benjaminsen, T. A., Gentry, B. S., Hunsberger, C. … Upton, C. (2013). Global land governance: From territory to flow? Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 5, 522–527.10.1016/j.cosust.2013.06.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, N. (2007). Nature as an accumulation strategy. Socialist Register, 16, 19–41.
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan, S. (2013). Banking nature? The spectacular financialisation of environmental conservation. Antipode, 45, 198–217.10.1111/anti.2013.45.issue-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tienhaara, K. (2012). The potential perils of forest carbon contracts for developing countries: Cases from Africa. Journal of Peasant Studies, 39, 551–572.10.1080/03066150.2012.664137
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsing, A. L. (2005). Friction: An ethnography of global connection. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (2004). Guiding principles on internal displacement. New York, NY: Author.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Development Programme (2006). Evaluation of UNDP assistance to conflict-affected countries: Case study Sierra Leone. New York, NY: Author.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Environment Programme. (2010). Sierra Leone: Environment, conflict, and peacebuilding assessment. UNEP Technical Report. Nairobi: Author.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Environment Programme. (2011). Towards a green economy: Pathways to sustainable development and poverty eradication. Arendal, Norway: UNEP/GRID.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2013a). 2013 UNHCR Regional Operations Profile – West Africa. Retrieved May 31, 2013, from https://www.unhcr.org/cgibin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e485186&submit=GO
   Google Scholar
• United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2013b). Refugees in Liberia. Retrieved May 31, 2013, from https://data.unhcr.org/liberia/regional.php
   Google Scholar
• Unruh, J. D. (2008). Carbon sequestration in Africa: The land tenure problem. Global Environmental Change, 18, 700–707.10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.07.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unruh, J. (2009). Land rights in postwar Liberia: The volatile part of the peace process. Land Use Policy, 26, 425–433.10.1016/j.landusepol.2008.05.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandergeest, P., & Peluso, N. L. (1995). Territorialization and state power in Thailand. Theory and Society, 24, 385–426.10.1007/BF00993352
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White, B., Borras, S. M., Jr, Hall, R., Scoones, I., & Wolford, W. (2012). The new enclosures: Critical perspectives on corporate land deals. Journal of Peasant Studies, 39, 619–647.10.1080/03066150.2012.691879
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, G. I. H. (2002). Liberia: The heart of darkness. Victoria: Trafford.
   Google Scholar
• Winnebah, T., & Leach, M. (2015). Old reserve, new carbon interests: The case of the Western Area Peninsula forest (WAPFor), Sierra Leone. In M. Leach, & I. Scoones (Eds.), Carbon Conflicts and Forest Landscapes in Africa (pp. 180–195). London: Routledge/Earthscan.
   Google Scholar
• Wolford, W., Borras, S. M., Jr, Hall, R., Scoones, I., & White, B. (2013). Governing global land deals: The role of the state in the rush for land. Development and Change, 44, 189–210.10.1111/dech.2013.44.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods, K. (2011). Ceasefire capitalism: Military-private partnerships, resource concessions and military-state building in the Burma-China borderlands. Journal of Peasant Studies, 38, 747–770.10.1080/03066150.2011.607699
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Bank. (2012). Inclusive green growth: The pathway to sustainable development. Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Yengoh, G. T., & Armah, F. A. (2016). Land access constraints for communities affected by large-scale land acquisition in Southern Sierra Leone. GeoJournal, 81, 103–122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar