The relationship between internalized homonegativity and body image concerns in sexual minority men: a meta-analysis

References

• Balsam, K. F. (2001). Nowhere to hide: Lesbian battering, homophobia, and minority stress. Women and Therapy, 23, 25–38.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell, A., & Weinberg, M. (1978). Homosexualities: A study of diversity among men and women. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• Bianchi, M., Piccoli, V., Zotti, D., Fasoli, F., & Carnaghi, A. (2017). The impact of homophobic labels on the internalized homophobia and body image of gay men: The moderation role of coming-out. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 36, 356–367. *
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blashill, A. J., Safren, S. A., Wilhelm, S., Jampel, J., Taylor, S. W., O’Cleirigh, C., & Mayer, K. H. (2017). Cognitive behavioral therapy for body image and self-care (CBT-BISC) in sexual minority men living with HIV: A randomized controlled trial. Health Psychology, 36, 937.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borenstein, M. J., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J., & Rothstein, H. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Borenstein, M. J., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J., & Rothstein, H. (2014). Comprehensive meta-analysis (Vers. 3). Englewood, NJ: Biostat.
   Google Scholar
• Brennan, D. J., Craig, S. L., & Thompson, D. E. (2012). Factors associated with a drive for muscularity among gay and bisexual men. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 14, 1–15. *
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brennan, D. J., Crath, R., Hart, T. A., Gadalla, T., & Gillis, L. (2011). Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating among men who have sex with men in Canada. International Journal of Men’s Health, 10, 253–268.
   Google Scholar
• Brennan, D. J., Souleymanov, R., George, C., Newman, P. A., Hart, T. A., Asakura, K., & Betancourt, G. (2015). Masculinity, muscularity, and HIV sexual risk among gay and bisexual men of color. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 16, 393–403. *
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewster, M. E., Sandil, R., DeBlaere, C., Breslow, A., & Eklund, A. (2017). “Do you even lift, bro?” Objectification, minority stress, and body image concerns for sexual minority men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 18, 87–98. *
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewster, M. E., Velez, B. L., Esposito, J., Wong, S., Geiger, E., & Keum, T. B. (2014). Moving beyond the binary with disordered eating research: A test and extension of objectification theory with bisexual women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61, 50–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, T. A., Cash, T. F., & Mikulka, P. J. (1990). Attitudinal body image assessment: Factor analysis of the Body-Self Relations questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55, 135–144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, T. A., Forney, K. J., Pinner, D., & Keel, P. K. (2017). A randomized controlled trial of the body project : More than muscles for men with body dissatisfaction. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 50(8), 873-883.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cash, T., & Szymanski, M. (1995). The development and validation of the Body-Image Ideals questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64, 466–477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hills-dale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Currie, M., Cunningham, E., & Findlay, B. M. (2004). The short internalised homonegativity scale: Examination of the factorial structure of a new measure of internalized homophobia. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64, 1053–1067.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duggan, S. J., & McCreary, D. R. (2004). Body image, eating disorders, and the drive for muscularity in gay and heterosexual men: The influence of media images. Journal of Homosexuality, 47, 45–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duval, S., & Tweedie, R. (2000). Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics, 56, 455–463.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards, S., & Launder, C. (2000). Investigating muscularity concerns in male body image: Development of the Swansea muscularity attitudes questionnaire. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 28, 120–124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabris, M. A., Longobardi, C., Prino, L. E., & Settanni, M. (2018). Attachment style and risk of muscle dysmorphia in a sample of male bodybuilders. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 19, 273–281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117–140.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filiault, S. M., & Drummond, M. J. N. (2009). Methods and methodologies: Investigating gay men’s body image in Westernized cultures. Critical Public Health, 19, 307–323.
   Google Scholar
• Garner, D. M. (1991). Eating disorders inventory 2: Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Garner, D. M., Olmstead, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a Multidimensional Eating Disorder Inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15–34.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greentree, S., & Lewis, V. (2011). Male body image and its relationship to sexual preference and homophobia. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 26, 105–126. *
   Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haines, M. E., Erchull, M. J., Liss, M., Turner, D. L., Nelson, J. A., Ramsey, L. R., & Hurt, M. M. (2008). Predictors and effects of self-objectification in lesbians. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 181–187.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herek, G. M. (2000). The psychology of sexual prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 19–22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herek, G. M. (2007). Confronting sexual stigma and prejudice: Theory and practice. Journal of Social Issues, 63, 905–925.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herek, G. M., Cogan, J. C., Gillis, J. R., & Glunt, E. K. (1998). Correlates of internalized homophobia in a community sample of lesbian and gay men. Journal of the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, 2, 17–25.
   Google Scholar
• Herek, G. M., Gillis, J. R., & Cogan, J. C. (2009). Internalized stigma among sexual minority adults: Insights from a social psychological perspective. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 32–43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, J. P. T., & Thompson, S. G. (2002). Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Statistics in Medicine, 21, 1539–1558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobza, C. L., Walker, K. E., Yakushko, O., & Peugh, J. L. (2007). What about men? Social comparison and the effects of media images on body and self-esteem. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8, 161.
   Google Scholar
• Huedo-Medina, T. B., Sánchez-Meca, J., MarÍn-MartÍnez, F., & Botella, J. (2006). Assessing heterogeneity in meta-analysis: Q statistic or I2 index? Psychological Methods, 11, 193–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt, C. J., Fasoli, F., Carnaghi, A., & Cadinu, M. (2016). Masculine self-presentation and distancing from femininity in gay men: An experimental examination of the role of masculinity threat. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 17, 108–112.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt, C. J., Gonsalkorale, K., & Nosek, B. A. (2012). Links between psychosocial variables and body dissatisfaction in homosexual men: Differential relations with the drive for muscularity and the drive for thinness. International Journal of Men’s Health, 11, 127–136. *
   Google Scholar
• Kaminski, P. L., Chapman, B. P., Haynes, S. D., & Own, L. (2005). Body image, eating behaviors, and attitudes toward exercise among gay and straight men. Eating Behaviors, 6, 179–187.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kassel, P., & Franko, D. L. (2000). Body image disturbance and psychodynamic psychotherapy with gay men. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 8, 307–317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimmel, S. B., & Mahalik, J. R. (2004). Measuring masculine body ideal distress: Development of a measure. International Journal of Men’s Health, 3, 1–10.
   Google Scholar
• Kimmel, S. B., & Mahalik, J. R. (2005). Body image concerns of gay men: The roles of minority stress and conformity to masculine norms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 1185–1190. *
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kozee, H. B., & Tylka, T. L. (2006). A test of objectification theory with lesbian women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 348–357.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krebs, G., De La Cruz, L. F., Monzani, B., Bowyer, L., Anson, M., Cadman, J., … Mataix-Cols, D. (2017). Long-term outcomes of cognitive-behavioral therapy for adolescent body dysmorphic disorder. Behavior Therapy, 48, 462–473.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krueger, M. (2017). The effects of sexuality and gender norm conformation on the male drive for thinness and drive for muscularity (Dissertetion Thesis). Western Kentucky University. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/stu_hon_theses/691/
   Google Scholar
• Leit, R. A., Pope, H. G., & Gray, J. J. (2001). Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: The evolution of playgirl centerfolds. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29, 90–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longobardi, C., Badenes-Ribera, L., Sánchez-Meca, J., & Fabris, M. A. (2017). Muscle dysmorphia and eating disorders: a meta-analysis of their association (Unpublished).
   Google Scholar
• Longobardi, C., Prino, L. E., Fabris, M. A., & Settanni, M. (2017). Muscle dysmorphia and psychopathology: Findings from an Italian sample of male bodybuilders. Psychiatry Research, 256, 231–236. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.06.065.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luciano, L. (2007). Muscularity and masculinity in the United States: A historical overview. In J. K. Thompson & G. Cafri (Eds.), The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives (pp. 41–65). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
   Google Scholar
• Martin, J. L., & Dean, L. (1987). Summary of measures: Mental health effects of AIDS on at-risk homosexual men (Unpublished manuscript). Division of Sociomedical Sciences, Columbia University, School of Public Health.
   Google Scholar
• Martins, Y., Tiggemann, M., & Kirkbride, A. (2007). Those speedos become them: The role of self-objectification in gay and heterosexual men’s body image. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 634–647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason, T. B., & Lewis, R. J. (2016). Minority stress, body shame, and binge eating among lesbian women: Social anxiety as a linking mechanism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40, 428–440.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayfield, W. (2001). The development of the internalized homonegativity inventory for gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 41, 53–76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCreary, D. R., & Sasse, D. K. (2000). An exploration of the drive for muscularity in adolescent boys and girls. Journal of American College Health 48, 297–304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland, M. B., & Petrie, T. A. (2012). Male body satisfaction: Factorial and construct validity of the body parts satisfaction scale for men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59, 329–337.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKinley, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The Objectified Body Consciousness Scale development and validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 181–215.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 38–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H., & Dean, L. (1998). Internalized homophobia, intimacy, and sexual behavior among gay and bisexual men. In G. M. Herek (Ed.), Stigma and sexual orientation: Understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (pp. 160–186). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Mills, J. S., & D’alfonso, S. R. (2007). Competition and male body image: Increased drive for muscularity following failure to a female. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26, 505–518.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & Group PRISMA. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Open Medicine, 3, e123–130.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mohr, J. J., & Fassinger, R. E. (2000). Measuring dimensions of lesbian and gay male experience. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 33, 66–90.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molt, R. W., & Conroy, D. E. (2000). Validity and factorial invariance of the Social Physique Anxiety Scale. Psychology and Social Sciences, 32, 1007–1017.
   Google Scholar
• Morrison, M. A., Morrison, T. G., & Sager, C. L. (2004). Does body satisfaction differ between gay men and lesbian women and heterosexual men and women? A meta-analytic review. Body Image, 1, 127–138.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morrison, T. G., Morrison, M. A., & Bradley, B. A. (2007). Correlates of gay men’s self-reported exposure to pornography. International Journal of Sexual Health, 19, 33–43. *
   Google Scholar
• Morrison, T. G., Morrison, M. A., Hopkins, C., & Rowan, E. T. (2004). Muscle mania: Development of a new scale examining the drive for muscularity. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 5, 30–39.
   Google Scholar
• Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002). E-Research: Ethics, security, design, and control in psychological research on the internet. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 161–176.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nungesser, L. G. (1983). Homosexual acts, actors, and identities. New York, NY: Praeger.
   Google Scholar
• Pachankis, J. E. (2014). Uncovering clinical principles and techniques to address minority stress, mental health, and related health risks among gay and bisexual men. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 21(4), 313–330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pachankis, J. E., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Rendina, H. J., Safren, S. A., & Parsons, J. T. (2015). LGB-affirmative cognitive-behavioral therapy for young adult gay and bisexual men: A randomized controlled trial of a transdiagnostic minority stress approach. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83, 875–889.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. (3rd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Peplau, L. A., Frederick, D. A., Yee, C., Maisel, N., Lever, J., & Ghavami, N. (2009). Body image satisfaction in heterosexual, gay, and lesbian adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 713–725.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope, H. G., Olivardia, R., Gruber, A., & Borowiecki, J. (1999). Evolving ideals of male body image as seen through action toys. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26, 65–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reilly, A., & Rudd, N. A. (2006). Is internalized homonegativity related to body image? Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 35, 58–73. *
   Google Scholar
• Reilly, A., Yancura, L. A., & Young, D. M. (2013). Three predictive variables of social physique anxiety among gay men. Psychology & Sexuality, 4, 244–254. *
   Google Scholar
• Rostosky, S. S., Riggle, E. D. B., Gray, B. E., & Hatton, R. L. (2007). Minority stress experiences in committed same-sex couple relationships. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 38, 392–400.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, C. J., & Keel, P. (2002). Homosexuality as a specific risk factor for eating disorders in men. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 300–306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siconolfi, D., Halkitis, P. N., Allomong, T. W., & Burton, C. L. (2009). Body dissatisfaction and eating disorders in a sample of gay and bisexual men. International Journal of Men’s Health, 8, 254–264.
   Google Scholar
• Siconolfi, D. E., Kapadia, F., Moeller, R. W., Eddy, J. A., Kupprat, S. A., Kingdon, M. J., & Halkitis, P. N. (2016). Body dissatisfaction in a diverse sample of young men who have sex with men: The P18 cohort study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 4, 1227–1239. *
   Google Scholar
• Sterne, J. A. C., & Egger, M. (2005). Regression methods to detect publication and other bias in meta-analysis. In H. R. Rothstein, A. J. Sutton, & M. Borenstein (Ed.), Publication bias in meta-analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments (pp. 99–100). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Sterne, J. A. C., Gavaghan, D., & Egger, M. (2000). Publication and related bias in meta-analysis: Power of statistical tests and prevalence in the literature. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 53, 1119–1129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strong, S. M., Singh, D., & Randall, P. K. (2000). Childhood gender nonconformity and body dissatisfaction in gay and heterosexual men. Sex Roles, 43,427–439.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szymanski, D. M., Kashubeck-West, S., & Meyer, J. (2008). Internalized heterosexism: A historical and theoretical overview. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 510–524.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tatangelo, G., McCabe, M., Mellor, D., & Mealey, A. (2016). A systematic review of body dissatisfaction and sociocultural messages related to the body among preschool children. Body Image, 18, 86–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tate, H., & George, R. (2001). The effect of weight loss on body image in HIV-positive gay men. AIDS Care, 13, 163–169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thiede, H., Valleroy, L. A., MacKellar, D. A., Celentano, D. D., Ford, W. L., Hagan, H., & Torian, L. V. (2003). Regional patterns and correlates of substance use among young men who have sex with men in 7 us urban areas. American Journal of Public Health, 93(11). 1915–1921.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornton, A., & Lee, P. (2000). Publication bias in meta-analysis: Its causes and consequences. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 53, 207–216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tylka, T. L., Bergeron, D., & Schwartz, J. P. (2005). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Male Body Attitudes Scale (MBAS). Body Image, 2, 161–175.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Watson, L. B., Grotewiel, M., Farrell, M., Marshik, J., & Schneider, M. (2015). Experiences of sexual objectification, minority stress, and disordered eating among sexual minority women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39, 458–470.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winter, H. C. (1989). An examination of the relationships between penis size and body image, genital image, and perception of sexual competency in the male (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). New York University.
   Google Scholar
• Wiseman, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2010). Body image and eating disorder symptoms in sexual minority men: A test and extension of objectification theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 154–166. *
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolke, D., & Sapouna, M. (2008). Big men feeling small: Childhood bullying experience, muscle dysmorphia and other mental health problems in bodybuilders. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9, 595–604.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yelland, C., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). Muscularity and the gay ideal: Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in homosexual men. Eating Behaviors, 4, 107–116.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar