Towards a generic procedure for the detection of relevant contaminants from waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) in plastic food-contact materials: a review and selection of key parameters

References

• Ballesteros-Gómez A, De Boer J, Leonards PE. 2016. Novel analytical methods for flame retardants and plasticizers based on gas chromatography, comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography, and direct probe coupled to atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-high resolution time-of-flight-mass spectrometry. Anal Chem. 85:9572–9580.
   Google Scholar
• Barthélémy E, Spyropoulos D, Milana MR, Pfaff K, Gontard N, Lampi E, Castle L. 2014. Safety evaluation of mechanical recycling processes used to produce polyethylene terephthalate (PET) intended for food contact applications. Food Addit Contam Part A. 31:490–497.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergman Å, Rydén A, Law RJ, De Boer J, Covaci A, Alaee M, Birnbaum L, Petreas M, Rose M, Sakai S, et al. 2012. A novel abbreviation standard for organobromine, organochlorine and organophosphorus flame retardants and some characteristics of the chemicals. Environ Int. 49C:57–82.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binnemans K, Dupont D, Arnout S, Jones PT. 2016. Antimony recovery from end-of-life products and industrial process residues: a critical review. J Sustain Metall. 2–1:79–103.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buekens A, Yang J. 2014. Recycling of WEEE plastics: a review. J Mater Cycles Waste. 16:415–434.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camino G, Costa L, Luda Di Cortemiglia MP. 1991. Thermal stabilization and flammability of polymers and composites: overview of fire retardant mechanisms. Polym Degrad Stab. 33:131–154.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chancerel P, Meskers CEM, Hagelüken C, Rotter VS. 2009. Assessment of precious metal flows during pre-processing of waste electrical and electronic equipment. J Ind Ecol. 13:791–810.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng-Yu Wang F. 2000. Polymer additive analysis by pyrolysis–gas chromatography: II. J Chromatogr. 886:225–235.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christian B, Romanova I, Turbini L 2012. Elemental compositions of over two dozen cell phones, as originally published in the IPC APEX EXPO proceedings. Available from: https://www.smtnet.com/library/files/upload/cell-phones-composition.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Covaci A, Gerecke AC, Law RJ, Voorspoels S, Kohler M, Heeb NV, Leslie H, Allchin CR, de Boer J. 2006. Hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) in the environment and humans: a review. Environ Sci Technol. 40:3679–3688.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darnerud PA. 2003. Toxic effects of brominated flame retardants in man and in wildlife. Environ Int. 29:841–853.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Percin PR. 1995. Application of thermal desorption technologies to hazardous waste sites. J Hazard Mater. 40:203–209.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dimitrakakis E, Janz A, Bilitewski B, Gidarakos E. 2009. Small WEEE: determining recyclables and hazardous substances in plastics. J Hazard Mater. 161:913–919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duan H, Hu J, Tan Q, Liu L, Wang Y, Li J. 2016. Systematic characterization of generation and management of e-waste in China. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 23:1929–1943.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dwivedy M, Mittal RK. 2010. Estimation of future outflows of e-waste in India. Waste Manag. 30:483–491.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egebäck AL, Sellström U, McLachlan MS. 2012. Decabromodiphenyl ethane and decabromodiphenyl ether in Swedish background air. Chemosphere. 86:264–269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2002a. Directive (EC) no. 2002/95/EC of the European parliament and of the council of 27 January 2003 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. Off J Eur Union L. 37:19.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2002b. Commission Directive 2002/72/EC of 6 August 2002 relating to plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with foodstuffs (Text with EEA relevance). Oj L 220. 15.8:18–58.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2008. European regulation (EC) No 282/2008 of 27 March 2008 on recycled plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with foods and amending regulation (EC) no 2023/2006. Off J Eur Union L. 86:9.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2011a. Regulation (EC) No. 10/2011 of 14 January 2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food. Off J Eur Union. L. 39:41.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2011b. Regulation (EC) No. 321/2011 of 2 April 2011 amending and correcting Regulation (EU) No 10/2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food. Off J Eur Union. L87:1.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2011c. Regulation (EC) No. 1282/2011 of 28 November 2011 amending and correcting Regulation (EU) No 10/2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food. Off J Eur Union. L328:22.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2011d. Directive (EC) No. 2011/65/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2011 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. Off J Eur Union. L179:88.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2011e. Commission regulation (EU) No 284/2011 of 22 March 2011 laying down specific conditions and detailed procedures for the import of polyamide and melamine plastic kitchenware originating in or consigned from the People’s Republic of China and Hong Kong special administrative region, China. Off J Eur Union L. 77:22–25.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2012. Directive (EC) No. 1183/2012/EU of 30 November 2012 amending and correcting Regulation (EU) No 10/2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food. Off J Eur Union. L338:11.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2014a. Regulation (EC) no. 202/2014 of 3 March 2014 amending European commission regulation (EU) no. 10/2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food. Off J Eur Union. L 62:13.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2014b. Regulation (EC) no. 865/2014 of 8 August 2014 amending European commission regulation (EU) no. 10/2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food. Off J Eur Union. L 238:1.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2014c. Recommendation No. 2014/118/EU of 3 March 2014 on the monitoring of traces of brominated flame retardants in food. Off J Eur Union L. 65:39.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2015. Regulation (EC) no. 2015/174 of 5 February 2015 amending European commission regulation (EU) no. 10/2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food. Off J Eur Union L. 30:2.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2016. Commission regulation (EU) 2016/1416 of 24 August 2016 amending and correcting regulation (EU) no 10/2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food (Text with EEA relevance). Off J Eur Union L. 230:22–42.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission, Joint Research Centre – Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (JRC-IRMM). 2007. CERTIFICATION Report The certification of the mass fractions of As, Br, Cd, Cl, Cr, Hg, Pb, S and Sb and the assignment of indicative values for Sn and Zn in two polyethylene reference materials Certified Reference Materials, ERM®-EC680k and ERM®-EC681k, ISSN 1018-5593, Available from: http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC37540/7540%20-%20ERM-EC680k%20%20ERM-EC681k_report_complete.pdf
   Google Scholar
• European Commission, Joint Research Centre – Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (JRC-IRMM). 2009. CERTIFICATION Report Certification of the mass fractions of various polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), decabrominated biphenyl and total Br and total Sb in two polymer reference materials Certified Reference Materials ERM®-EC590 & ERM®-EC591, EUR 23677 EN, ISBN 978-92-79-11105-1, ISSN 1018-5593, DOI 10.2787/9764, Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/sites/default/files/rm/ERM-EC590_report.pdf
   Google Scholar
• European Union. 2004. EU parliament and council directive 1935/2004 of 27 October 2004. Oj L. 338/4. [ cited 2004 Nov 13].
   Google Scholar
• Fink H, Panne U, Theisen M, Niessner R, Probst T, Lin X. 2000. Determination of metal additives and bromine in recycled thermoplastics from electronic waste by TXRF analysis. Fresen J Anal Chem. 368:235–239.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gallen C, Banks A, Brandsma S, Baduel C, Thai P, Eaglesham G, Heffernan A, Leonards PE, Bainton P, Mueller JF. 2014. Towards development of a rapid and effective non-destructive testing strategy to identify brominated flame retardants in the plastics of consumer products. Sci Total Environ. 491–492:255–265.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gieroń J, Grochowalski A, Chrząszcz R. 2010. PBB levels in fish from the Baltic and North seas and in selected food products from Poland. Chemosphere. 78:1272–1278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodship V, Stevels A. 2012. Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) handbook. Woodhead publishing series in Electronic and optical materials. ISSN 2050-1501. Woodhead Publishing. Available from: https://www.elsevier.com/books/waste-electrical-and-electronic-equipment-weee-handbook/goodship/978-0-85709-089-8
   Google Scholar
• Groß R, Bunke D, Gensch CO, Zangl S, Manhart A. 2008. Study on hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, not regulated by the RoHS directive. Study made at the Öko-Institut e.V. (Head Office Freiburg). Contract No. 070307/2007/476836/MAR/G4. Final report. Freiburg: Öko-Institut. Available from http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/weee/pdf/hazardous_substances_report.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Guo J, Guo J, Xu Z. 2009. Recycling of non-metallic fractions from waste printed circuit boards: a review. J Hazard Mater. 168:567–590.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guzzonato A, Mehlmann H, Krumwiede D, Harrad S. 2016a. A novel method for quantification of decabromodiphenyl ether in plastics without sample preparation using direct insertion probe – magnetic sector high resolution mass spectrometry. Anal Methods. 8:5487–5494.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guzzonato A, Puype F, Harrad S. 2016c. Pushing the limits of hand-held X-ray fluorescence spectrometers to quantify BFRs in WEEE. Organohalogen Compd. 78:15–18.
   Google Scholar
• Guzzonato A, Puype F, Harrad SJ. 2016b. Improving the accuracy of hand-held X-ray fluorescence spectrometers as a tool for monitoring brominated flame retardants in waste polymers. Chemosphere. 159:89–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guzzonato A, Puype F, Harrad SJ. 2017. Evidence of bad recycling practices: BFRs in children’s toys and food-contact articles. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts.
   Google Scholar
• Harju M, Hamers T, Kamstra JH, Sonneveld E, Boon JP, Tysklind M, Andersson PL. 2007. Quantitative structureactivity relationship modeling on in vitro endocrine effects and metabolic stability involving 26 selected brominated flame retardants. Environ Toxicol Chem. 26:816–826.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herrera M, Matuschek G, Kettrup A. 2003. Fast identification of polymer additives by pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis. 70:35–42.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hindersinn RR. 1990. Historical aspects of polymer fire retardance. In: Nelson GL, editor. Fire and polymers hazard identification and prevention. American chemical society symposium series. New York (NY): American Chemical Society.
   Google Scholar
• Hirai Y, Sakai S 2007. Brominated flame retardants in recycled plastic products. BFR 2007. Paper Presented at: the 4th International Symposium on Brominated Flame Retardants; Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
   Google Scholar
• Hosaka A, Watanabe C, Tsung S. 2005. Rapid determination of decabromodiphenyl ether in polystyrene by thermal desorption- GC/MS. Anal Sci. 21:1145–1147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), 2008, IEC 62321 Ed.1: ‘Electrotechnical products – Determination of levels of six regulated substances (lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls, polybrominated diphenyl ethers)’, IEC/FDIS 2008. Available from: http://webstore.iec.ch/webstore/webstore.nsf/Artnum_PK/42411
   Google Scholar
• Jakab E, Uddin M, Bhaskar T, Sakata Y. 2003. Thermal decomposition of flame-retarded high-impact polystyrene. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis. 68–69:83–99.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahhat R, Williams E. 2012. Materials flow analysis of e-waste: domestic flows and exports of used computers from the United States. Resour Conserv Recycl. 67:67–74.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemmlein S, Herzke D, Law RJ. 2009. Brominated flame retardants in the European chemicals policy of REACH-Regulation and determination in materials. J Chromatogr. 1216:320–333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keresztes S, Tatár E, Mihucz VG, Virág I, Majdik C, Záray G. 2009. Leaching of antimony from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles into mineral water. Sci Total Environ. 407:4731–4735.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kierkegaard A, Björklund J, Fridén U. 2004. Identification of the flame retardant decabromodiphenyl ethane in the environment. Environ Sci Technol. 38:3247–3253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knoop J, Opperman U, Schram J. 2014. Interference-free determination of REEs in electronic waste using ICP optical emission spectroscopy. J Chem Chem Eng. 8:635–640.
   Google Scholar
• Martinho G, Pires A, Saraiva L, Ribeiro R. 2012. Composition of plastics from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) by direct sampling. Waste Management. 32:1213–1217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller GZ, Tighe ME, Peaslee GF, Peña K, Gearhart J. 2016. Toys, décor, and more: evidence of hazardous electronic waste recycled into new consumer products. J Environ Prot (Irvine, Calif). 7:341–350.
   Google Scholar
• Muncke J. 2009. Exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds via the food chain: is packaging a relevant source? Sci Total Environ. 407:4549–4559.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paine MR, Rae ID, Blanksby SJ. 2014. Direct detection of brominated flame retardants from plastic e-waste using liquid extraction surface analysis mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom. 28:1203–1208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pöhlein M, Bertran RU, Wolf M, Van Eldrik R. 2005. Rapid identification of RoHS relevant flame retardants from polymer housings by ultrasonic extraction and RPHPLC/UV. J Chromatogr A. 1066:111–117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pritchard G. 1998. plastics additives. Chapman & Hall, ISBN. 0:72720 X.
   Google Scholar
• Puype F, Samsonek J. 2008. Identification of decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) in plastics by thermal desorption GC-MS. Organohalogen Compd. 70:914–917.
   Google Scholar
• Puype F, Samsonek J. 2013. The application of thermal desorption and reactive pyrolysis – gas chromatography – mass spectrometry for the identification of end-capped brominated expoxy based polymers based on tetrabromobisphenol A diglycidyl ether in PBT. Proceedings from PMA 2013 & SRC 2013. The official journal of the Association of Czech Chemical Societies.
   Google Scholar
• Puype F, Samsonek J, Ambros J. 2014. Internal standardization for analytical pyrolysis, thermal desorption and quantitative in-source desorption by electron impact ionization: improvements and strategies for polymer science. Proceedings from PLASTKO 2014. Zlín: Univerzita Tomáše Bati ve Zlíně (UTB)
   Google Scholar
• Puype F, Samsonek J, Knoop J, Egelkraut-Holtus M, Ortlieb M. 2015. Evidence of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) relevant substances in polymeric food-contact articles sold on the European market. Food Addit Contam: Part. 32:410–426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ricklund N, Kierkegaard A, McLachlan MS. 2010. Levels and potential sources of decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) and decabromodiphenyl ether (decaBDE) in lake and marine sediments in Sweden. Environ Sci Technol. 44:1987–1991.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samsonek J, Puype F. 2013. Occurrence of brominated flame retardants in black thermos cups and selected kitchen utensils purchased on the European market. Food Addit Contam: Part. 30:1976–1986.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samsonek J, Puype F, Vít D. 2007. Rapid determination of certain BFRs in plastics by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) and thermal desorption GC-MS (TD-GC-MS) for the RoHS directive. Organohalogen Compd. 69:2789–2792.
   Google Scholar
• Sato Y, Oki M, Kondo A, Takenaka M, Satake H. 2010. Rapid analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers by ion attachment mass spectrometry. Anal Methods. 2:701–706.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schecter A, Haffner D, Colacino J, Patel K, Päpke O, Opel M, Birnbaum L. 2009. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclodecane (HBCD) in composite U.S. food samples. Environ Health Perspect. 118:357–362.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlummer M, Gruber L, Mäurer A, Wolz G, van Eldik R. 2007. Characterisation of polymer fractions from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and implications for waste management. Chemosphere. 67:1866–1876.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Segev O, Kushmaro A, Brenner A. 2009. Review environmental impact of flame retardants (Persistence and biodegradability), int. J Environ Res Public Health. 6:478–491.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sindiku O, Babayemi J, Osibanjo O, Schlummer M, Schluep M, Watson A, Weber R. 2015. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers listed as Stockholm Convention POPs, other brominated flame retardants and heavy metals in e-waste polymers in Nigeria. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 22:14489–14501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stapleton HM, Allen JG, Kelly SM, Konstantinov A, Klosterhaus S, Watkins D, McClean MD, Webster TF. 2008a. Alternate and new brominated flame retardants detected in U.S. house dust. Environ Sci Technol. 42:6910–6916. PMID.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stapleton HM, Dodder NG. 2008b. Photodegradation of decabromodiphenyl ether in house dust by natural sunlight. Environ Toxicol Chem. 27:306–312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stapleton HM, Klosterhaus S, Keller A, Ferguson PL, van Bergen S, Cooper E, Webster TF, Blum A. 2011. Identification of flame retardants in polyurethane foam collected from baby products. Environ Sci Technol. 45:5323–5331.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szymańska JA, Piotrowski JK, Frydrych B. 1999. Hepatotoxicity of tetrabromobisphenol-A: effects of repeated dosage in rats. Toxicology. 142:87–95.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan Q, Dong Q, Liu L, Song Q, Liang Y, Li J. 2017. Potential recycling availability and capacity assessment on typical metals in waste mobile phones: A current research study in China. J Clean Prod. 148:509–517.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UNEP Report. 2013. Metal recycling: opportunities, limits, infrastructure, a report of the working group on the global metal flows to the international resource panel. Reuter. MA, Hudson C, van Schaik A, Heiskanen K, Meskers C, Hagelüken C. ISBN: 978-92-807-3267-2. Available from: http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Portals/24102/PDFs/Metal_Recycling_Full_Report.pdf
   Google Scholar
• US Patent 5077334, patent 1991. Flame-retarded formulations of thermoplastics and decabromodiphenylethane. from Ethyl Corp. [ cited 1991 Dec 31].
   Google Scholar
• Vilaplana F, Karlsson P, Ribes-Greus A, Ivarsson P, Karlsson S. 2008. Analysis of brominated flame retardants in styrenic polymers. Comparison of the extraction efficiency of ultrasonication, microwave-assisted extraction and pressurised liquid extraction. J Chromatogr A. 1196–1197:139–146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voorspoels S, Linsinger T, Birgersson-Liebig A, Pellizzato F, Venelinov T, Lamberty A. 2008. Towards the first certified reference material for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) in two types of polymers. Organohalogen Compd. 70:2248–2251.
   Google Scholar
• Vyzinkarova D, Brunner HP. 2013. Substance flow analysis of wastes containing polybrominated diphenyl ethers: the need for more information and for final sinks. J Ind Ecol. 17:900–911.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wäger P, Böni H, Buser A, Morf L, Schluep M, Streicher M. 2009. Recycling of plastics from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)—tentative results of a swiss study. In: R’09 twin world congress & world resources forum. Davos: EMPA Zurich.
   Google Scholar
• Wienold J, Recknagel S, Scharf H, Hoppe M, Michaelis M. 2011. Elemental analysis of printed circuit boards considering ROHS regulation. Waste Manag. 31:530–535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolksa J. 2005. Safeguarding the environment – XRF analysis of heavy metals in polyethylene. Plast Addit Compd. 7:36–39.
   Google Scholar
• Yamasue E, Nakajima K, Daigo I, Hashimoto S, Okumura H, Ishihara KN. 2007. Evaluation of the potential amounts of dissipated rare metals from WEEE in Japan. Mater Trans. 48–9:2353–2357.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshida A. 2011. Recyclable waste and goods trade of mainland China. Economic integration and recycling in asia: an interim report). Chosakenkyu Hokokusho, Institute of Developing Economies. Available from: http://www.ide.go.jp/Japanese/Publish/Download/Report/2010/pdf/2010_431_03.pdf
   Google Scholar