Validating an Agency-based Tool for Measuring Women’s Empowerment in a Complex Public Health Trial in Rural Nepal

References

• Abramsky, T., K. Devries, L. Kiss, J. Nakuti, N. Kyegombe, E. Starmann, B. Cundill, et al. 2014. “Findings from the SASA! Study: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial to Assess the Impact of a Community Mobilization Intervention to Prevent Violence Against Women and Reduce HIV Risk in Kampala, Uganda.” BMC Medicine 12 (1): 122. doi: 10.1186/s12916-014-0122-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acharya, D. R., J. S. Bell, P. Simkhada, E. R. van Tijlingen, and P. R. Regmi. 2010. “Women’s Autonomy in Household Decision-Making: A Demographic Study in Nepal.” Reproductive Health 7: 15. doi: 10.1186/1742-4755-7-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acharya, M., and L. Bennett. 1983. Women and the Subsistence Sector. Economic Participation and Household Decision-making in Nepal. World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Agarwal, B. 1997. “‘Bargaining’ and Gender Relations: Within and Beyond the Household.” Feminist Economics 3: 1–51. doi: 10.1080/135457097338799
   Google Scholar
• Agarwala, R., and S. M. Lynch. 2006. “Refining the Measurement of Women’s Autonomy: An International Application of a Multi-Dimensional Construct.” Social Forces 84 (4): 2077–2098. doi: 10.1353/sof.2006.0079
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed, S., A. A. Creanga, D. G. Gillespie, and A. O. Tsui. 2010. “Economic Status, Education and Empowerment: Implications for Maternal Health Service Utilization in Developing Countries.” PLoS One 5: e11190. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0011190
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alkire, S., R. Meinzen-Dick, A. Peterman, A. Quisumbing, G. Seymour, and A. Vaz. 2013. “The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index.” World Development 52: 71–91. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.06.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen, A. 1998. “Rethinking Power.” Hypatia 13: 21–40. doi: 10.1111/j.1527-2001.1998.tb01350.x
   Google Scholar
• Allendorf, K. 2007. “Couples’ Reports of Women’s Autonomy and Health-Care Use in Nepal.” Studies in Family Planning 38: 35–46. doi: 10.1111/j.1728-4465.2007.00114.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balk, D. 1997. “Defying Gender Norms in Rural Bangladesh: A Social Demographic Analysis.” Population Studies 51: 153–172. doi: 10.1080/0032472031000149886
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett, L. 1983. Dangerous Wives and Sacred Sisters. New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, L. 1992. Women, Poverty and Productivity in India. World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Berlin, I. 1959. Two Concepts of Liberty: An Inaugural Lecture Delivered Before the University of Oxford on 31 October 1958. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bowden, A., J. A. Fox-Rushby, L. Nyandieka, and J. Wanjau. 2002. “Methods for Pre-Testing and Piloting Survey Questions: Illustrations from the KENQOL Survey of Health-Related Quality of Life.” Health Policy and Planning 17: 322–330. doi: 10.1093/heapol/17.3.322
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron, M. M. 1995. “Transformations of Gender and Caste Divisions of Labor in Rural Nepal: Land, Hierarchy, and the Case of Untouchable Women.” Journal of Anthropological Research 51: 215–246. doi: 10.1086/jar.51.3.3630359
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cattell, R. B. 1966. “The Scree Test for the Number of Factors.” Multivariate Behavioral Research 1 (2): 245–276. doi: 10.1207/s15327906mbr0102_10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CIA. 2014. The World Factbook. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, G. A. 1983. “The Structure of Proletarian Unfreedom.” Philosophy & Public Affairs 12: 3–33.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coleman, J. S. 1988. “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital.” American Journal of Sociology 94: S95–S120. doi: 10.1086/228943
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, D. 2003. “Pretesting Survey Instruments: an Overview of Cognitive Methods.” Quality of Life Research 12 (3): 229–238. doi: 10.1023/A:1023254226592
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham, K., M. Ruel, E. Ferguson, and R. Uauy. 2014. “Women’s Empowerment and Child Nutritional Status in South Asia: A Synthesis of the Literature.” Maternal & Child Nutrition 11: 1–19. doi: 10.1111/mcn.12125
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahl, R. A. 1957. “The Concept of Power.” Behavioral Science 2: 201–215. doi: 10.1002/bs.3830020303
   Google Scholar
• Davis, H. L. 1971. “Measurement of Husband-Wife Influence in Consumer Purchase Decisions.” Journal of Marketing Research 8: 305–312. doi: 10.2307/3149567
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, C. V. 2009. “Im/possible Lives: Gender, Class, Self-Fashioning, and Affinal Solidarity in Modern South Asia.” Social Identities 15 (2): 243–272. doi: 10.1080/13504630902778701
   Google Scholar
• Deci, E. L., and R. M. Ryan. 2000. “The ‘What’ and ‘Why’ of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior.” Psychological Inquiry 11: 227–268. doi: 10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doss, C. 2013. “Intrahousehold Bargaining and Resource Allocation in Developing Countries.” The World Bank Research Observer 28: 52–78. doi: 10.1093/wbro/lkt001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dworkin, G. 1988. The Theory and Practice of Autonomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Eisenberger, R., W. D. Pierce, and J. Cameron. 1999. “Effects of Reward on Intrinsic Motivation - Negative, Neutral, and Positive: Comment on Deci, Koestner, and Ryan (1999).” Psychological Bulletin 125 (6): 677–691. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.677
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott, M. R., and B. T. West. 2015. “‘Clustering by Interviewer’: A Source of Variance That Is Unaccounted for in Single-Stage Health Surveys.” American Journal of Epidemiology 182 (2): 118–126. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwv018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabrigar, L. R., D. T. Wegener, R. C. MacCallum, and E. J. Strahan. 1999. “Evaluating the Use of Exploratory Factor Analysis in Psychological Research.” Psychological Methods 4 (3): 272–299. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.4.3.272
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Femia, J. V. 1987. Gramsci’s Political Thought: Hegemony, Consciousness, and the Revolutionary Process. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Folbre, N., and J. A. Nelson. 2000. “For Love or Money – Or Both?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 14: 123–140. doi: 10.1257/jep.14.4.123
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freire, P. 1972. Pedagogy of Oppressed. New York: Herder and Herder.
   Google Scholar
• García-Moreno, C., H. A. Jansen, M. Ellsberg, L. Heise, and C. Watts. 2005. WHO Multi-Country Study on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence Against Women: Initial Results on Prevalence, Health Outcomes and Women’s Responses. Geneva: World Health Organization.
   Google Scholar
• Godoy, R. A., A. Patel, V. Reyes-García, C. F. Seyfried Jr, W. R. Leonard, T. McDade, S. Tanner, and V. Vadez. 2006. “Nutritional Status and Spousal Empowerment Among Native Amazonians.” Social Science & Medicine 63: 1517–1530. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.03.048
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottlieb, B. H., and A. E. Bergen. 2010. “Social Support Concepts and Measures.” Journal of Psychosomatic Research 69 (5): 511–520. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2009.10.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harper, C., K. Nowacka, H. Alder, and G. Ferrant. 2014. Measuring Women’s Empowerment and Social Transformation in the Post 2015 Agenda.
   Google Scholar
• Haugaard, M. 2010. “Power: a ‘Family Resemblance’ Concept.” European Journal of Cultural Studies 13: 419–438. doi: 10.1177/1367549410377152
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hickey, S., and G. Mohan. 2004. Participation--from Tyranny to Transformation? Exploring New Approaches to Participation in Development. London: Zed Books.
   Google Scholar
• Hirschmann, N. J. 2009. The Subject of Liberty: Toward a Feminist Theory of Freedom. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hu, L., and P. M. Bentler. 1999. “Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria Versus New Alternatives.” Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal 6 (1): 1–55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ibrahim, S. S. 2006. “From Individual to Collective Capabilities: the Capability Approach as a Conceptual Framework for Self-Help.” Journal of Human Development 7 (3): 397–416. doi: 10.1080/14649880600815982
   Google Scholar
• Ibrahim, S., and S. Alkire. 2007. “Agency and Empowerment: A Proposal for Internationally Comparable Indicators.” Oxford Development Studies 35: 379–403. doi: 10.1080/13600810701701897
   Google Scholar
• Jejeebhoy, S. J. 1995. Women’s Education, Autonomy, and Reproductive Behaviour: Experience from Developing Countries. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jejeebhoy, S. J. 2002. “Convergence and Divergence in Spouses’ Perspectives on Women’s Autonomy in Rural India.” Studies in Family Planning 33: 299–308. doi: 10.1111/j.1728-4465.2002.00299.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johannes, C. B., S. L. Crawford, and J. B. McKinlay. 1997. “Interviewer Effects in a Cohort Study: Results from the Massachusetts Women’s Health Study.” American Journal of Epidemiology 146 (5): 429–438. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009296
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, R. B., A. J. Onwuegbuzie, and L. A. Turner. 2007. “Toward a Definition of Mixed Methods Research.” Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1 (2): 112–133. doi: 10.1177/1558689806298224
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kabeer, N. 1997. “Women, Wages and Intra-Household Power Relations in Urban Bangladesh.” Development and Change 28: 261–302. doi: 10.1111/1467-7660.00043
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kabeer, N. 1999. “Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women’s Empowerment.” Development and Change 30: 435–464. doi: 10.1111/1467-7660.00125
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kabeer, N. 2001. “Conflicts Over Credit: Re-Evaluating the Empowerment Potential of Loans to Women in Rural Bangladesh.” World Development 29: 63–84. doi: 10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00081-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kabeer, N. 2005. “Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment: A Critical Analysis of the Third Millennium Development Goal.” Gender & Development 13: 13–24. doi: 10.1080/13552070512331332273
   Google Scholar
• Kaiser, H. F. 1960. “The Application of Electronic Computers to Factor Analysis.” Educational and Psychological Measurement 20: 141–151. doi: 10.1177/001316446002000116
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khader, S. J. 2011. Adaptive Preferences and Women’s Empowerment. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Khader, S. 2015. “Beyond Autonomy Fetishism: Affiliation with Autonomy in Women’s Empowerment.” Journal of Human Development and Capabilities 17: 1–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kishor, S., and K. Gupta. 2004. “Women’s Empowerment in India and Its States: Evidence from the NFHS.” Economic and Political Weekly 39: 694–712.
   Google Scholar
• Kishor, S., and L. Subaiya. 2008. Understanding Womens Empowerment: A Comparative Analysis of Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) Data. USAID.
   Google Scholar
• Knott, M., and D. J. Bartholomew. 1999. Latent Variable Models and Factor Analysis. Edward Arnold.
   Google Scholar
• Kyegombe, N., T. Abramsky, K. M. Devries, E. Starmann, L. Michau, J. Nakuti, T. Musuya, L. Heise, and C. Watts. 2014. “The Impact of SASA!, A Community Mobilization Intervention, on Reported HIV-Related Risk Behaviours and Relationship Dynamics in Kampala, Uganda.” Journal of the International AIDS Society 17 (1). doi:10.7448/IAS.17.1.19232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lepper, M. R., and D. Greene. 2015. The Hidden Costs of Reward: New Perspectives on the Psychology of Human Motivation. London: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Liechty, M. 1996. “Paying for Modernity: Women and the Discourse of Freedom in Kathmandu.” Studies in Nepali History and Society 1 (1): 201–230.
   Google Scholar
• Lohr, K. N. 2002. “Assessing Health Status and Quality-of-Life Instruments: Attributes and Review Criteria.” Quality of Life Research 11: 193–205. doi: 10.1023/A:1015291021312
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lukes, S. 2005. Power: A Radical View. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.
   Google Scholar
• Malapit, H. J., S. Kadiyala, A. R. Quisumbing, K. Cunningham, and P. Tyagi. 2013. Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture, Production Diversity, and Nutrition: Evidence from Nepal. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Malapit, H. J., K. Sproule, C. Kovarik, R. Meinzen-Dick, A. Quisumbing, F. Ramzan, E. Hogue, and S. Alkire. 2013. Measuring Progress Toward Empowerment. Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index: Baseline Report. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Malhotra, A., and S. R. Schuler. 2005. “Women’s Empowerment as a Variable in International Development.” In Measuring Empowerment: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives, edited by D. Narayan, 71–88. Washington, DC: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Mandelbaum, D. G. 1993. Women’s Seclusion and Men’s Honor: Sex Roles in North India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. London: University of Arizona Press.
   Google Scholar
• Maslak, M. A., and G. Singhal. 2008. “The Identity of Educated Women in India: Confluence or Divergence?.” Gender and Education 20: 481–493. doi: 10.1080/09540250701829961
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason, K. O. 1986. “The Status of Women: Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Demographic Studies.” Sociological Forum 1: 284–300. doi: 10.1007/BF01115740
   Google Scholar
• Minturn, L., and S. Kapoor. 1993. Sita’s Daughters: Coming out of Purdah: The Rajput Women of Khalapur Revisited. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Morriss, P. 2009. “Power and Liberalism.” In The SAGE Handbook of Power, edited by Stewart R. Clegg and Mark Haugaard, 54–69. London: SAGE Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Mosedale, S. 2005. “Assessing Women’s Empowerment: Towards a Conceptual Framework.” Journal of International Development 17 (2): 243–257. doi: 10.1002/jid.1212
   Google Scholar
• Mumtaz, Z., and S. Salway. 2005. “‘I Never Go Anywhere’: Extricating the Links Between Women’s Mobility and Uptake of Reproductive Health Services in Pakistan.” Social Science & Medicine 60: 1751–1765. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.08.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mumtaz, Z., and S. Salway. 2009. “Understanding Gendered Influences on Women’s Reproductive Health in Pakistan: Moving Beyond the Autonomy Paradigm.” Social Science & Medicine 68: 1349–1356. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.01.025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• North, A. 2010. “MDG 3 and the Negotiation of Gender in International Education Organisations.” Compare 40 (4): 425–440.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pande, R., A. Malhotra, and C. Grown. 2005. “Impact of Investments in Female Education on Gender Equality.” Paper presented at XXV IUSSP International Population Conference, Tours, France.
   Google Scholar
• Papanek, H. 1979. “Family Status Production: The ‘Work’ and ‘Non-Work’ of Women.” Signs 4: 775–781. doi: 10.1086/493663
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelenc, J., M. K. Lompo, J. Ballet, and J. L. Dubois. 2013. “Sustainable Human Development and the Capability Approach: Integrating Environment, Responsibility and Collective Agency.” Journal of Human Development and Capabilities 14 (1): 77–94. doi: 10.1080/19452829.2012.747491
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterman, A., B. Schwab, S. Roy, M. Hidrobo, and D. O. Gilligan. 2015. Measuring Women’s Decisionmaking: Indicator Choice and Survey Design Experiments from Cash and Food Transfer Evaluations in Ecuador, Uganda, and Yemen.
   Google Scholar
• Peterson, N. A., and M. A. Zimmerman. 2004. “Beyond the Individual: Toward a Nomological Network of Organizational Empowerment.” American Journal of Community Psychology 34 (1–2): 129–145. doi: 10.1023/B:AJCP.0000040151.77047.58
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettit, P. 1996. “Freedom as Antipower.” Ethics 106: 576–604. doi: 10.1086/233648
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettit, P. 2001. “Symposium on Amartya Sen’s Philosophy: 1 Capability and Freedom: A Defence of Sen.” Economics and Philosophy 17 (01): 1–20. doi: 10.1017/S0266267101000116
   Google Scholar
• Pitt, M. M., S. R. Khandker, and J. Cartwright. 2006. “Empowering Women with Micro Finance: Evidence from Bangladesh.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 54: 791–831. doi: 10.1086/503580
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prost, A., T. Colbourn, N. Seward, K. Azad, A. Coomarasamy, A. Copas, T. A. Houweling, et al. 2013. “Women’s Groups Practising Participatory Learning and Action to Improve Maternal and Newborn Health in Low-Resource Settings: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” The Lancet 381: 1736–1746. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60685-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosato, M., G. Laverack, L. H. Grabman, P. Tripathy, N. Nair, C. Mwansambo, K. Azad, et al. 2008. “Community Participation: Lessons for Maternal, Newborn, and Child Health.” The Lancet 372: 962–971. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61406-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowlands, J. 1997. Questioning Empowerment: Working with Women in Honduras. Oxford: Oxfam.
   Google Scholar
• Saville, N., B. P. Shrestha, J. Beard, A. Rai, A. Sengupta, S. Style, A. Pulkki-Brannstrom, et al. forthcoming. “The Low Birth Weight South Asia Trial (LBWSAT): A Cluster-Randomised Controlled Trial in Nepal of Impact on Birth Weight of an Enhanced Nutrition Behaviour Change Strategy Through Women’s Groups and Home Visits, with and Without Unconditional Transfers of Fortified Food or Cash During Pregnancy.” BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth.
   Google Scholar
• Schuler, S. R., and F. Islam. 2008. “Women’s Acceptance of Intimate Partner Violence Within Marriage in Rural Bangladesh.” Studies in Family Planning 39 (1): 49–58. doi: 10.1111/j.1728-4465.2008.00150.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sen, A. 1985. “Well-Being, Agency and Freedom: The Dewey Lectures 1984.” The Journal of Philosophy 82: 169–221.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sen, A. 1999. Development as Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sen, G., and A. Mukherjee. 2014. “No Empowerment Without Rights, No Rights Without Politics: Gender-Equality, MDGs and the Post-2015 Development Agenda.” Journal of Human Development and Capabilities 15: 188–202. doi: 10.1080/19452829.2014.884057
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seppälä, P., S. Mauno, T. Feldt, J. Hakanen, U. Kinnunen, A. Tolvanen, and W. Schaufeli. 2009. “The Construct Validity of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale: Multisample and Longitudinal Evidence.” Journal of Happiness Studies 10: 459–481. doi: 10.1007/s10902-008-9100-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shroff, M., P. Griffiths, L. Adair, C. Suchindran, and M. Bentley. 2009. “Maternal Autonomy is Inversely Related to Child Stunting in Andhra Pradesh, India.” Maternal & Child Nutrition 5: 64–74. doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8709.2008.00161.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sraboni, E., H. J. Malapit, A. R. Quisumbing, and A. U. Ahmed. 2014. “Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture: What Role for Food Security in Bangladesh?” World Development 61: 11–52. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.03.025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, F. 2005. “Groups and Capabilities.” Journal of Human Development 6 (2): 185–204. doi: 10.1080/14649880500120517
   Google Scholar
• Swartz, D. 2012. Culture and Power: The Sociology of Pierre Bourdieu. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor, C. 1985. Philosophical Papers: Volume 2, Philosophy and the Human Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thompson, B. 2004. Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis: Understanding Concepts and Applications. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Trommlerová, S. K., S. Klasen, and O. Leßmann. 2015. “Determinants of Empowerment in a Capability-Based Poverty Approach: Evidence from The Gambia.” World Development 66: 1–15. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.07.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UN. 2014. The Millennium Development Goals Report. New York: United Nations.
   Google Scholar
• UN General Assembly. 2015. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
   Google Scholar
• UNPD U. 1994. “The Cairo Declaration on Population and Development.” Paper presented at International Conference on Population and Development.
   Google Scholar
• UNWOMEN. 1995. “The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action.” Paper presented at Fourth World Conference on Women.
   Google Scholar
• Upadhyay, U. D., J. D. Gipson, M. Withers, S. Lewis, E. J. Ciaraldi, A. Fraser, M. J. Huchko, and N. Prata. 2014. “Women’s Empowerment and Fertility: A Review of the Literature.” Social Science & Medicine 115: 111–120. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.06.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaz, A., S. Alkire, A. Quisumbing, and E. Sraboni. 2013. Measuring Autonomy: Evidence from Bangladesh.
   Google Scholar
• Vaz, A., P. Pratley, and S. Alkire. 2016. “Measuring Women’s Autonomy in Chad Using the Relative Autonomy Index.” Feminist Economics 22 (1): 264–294. doi: 10.1080/13545701.2015.1108991
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Victora, C. G., and F. C. Barros. 2013. “Participatory Women’s Groups: Ready for Prime Time?” The Lancet 381 (9879): 1693–1694. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61029-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogler, C., and J. Pahl. 1994. “Money, Power and Inequality Within Marriage.” The Sociological Review 42: 263–288. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-954X.1994.tb00090.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vyas, S., and C. Watts. 2009. “How Does Economic Empowerment Affect Women’s Risk of Intimate Partner Violence in Low and Middle Income Countries? A Systematic Review of Published Evidence.” Journal of International Development 21 (5): 577–602. doi: 10.1002/jid.1500
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2015. Data – Nepal.
   Google Scholar