Multilevel governance, climate (in)justice, and settler colonialism—evidence from First Nations disaster evacuations in so-called Canada

References

• Abbott, G., and M. Chapman. 2018. “Addressing the New Normal: 21st Century Disaster Management in British Columbia.” Report and Findings of the BC Flood and Wildfire Review: An Independent Review Examining the 2017 Flood and Wildfire Seasons. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/public-safety-and-emergency-services/emergency-preparedness-response-recovery/embc/bc-flood-and-wildfire-review-addressing-the-new-normal-21st-century-disaster-management-in-bc-web.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Alcantara, C., J. Broschek, and J. Nelles. 2016. “Rethinking Multilevel Governance as an Instance of Multilevel Politics: A Conceptual Strategy.” Territory, Politics, Governance 4 (1): 33–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622671.2015.1047897.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcantara, C., and M. Morden. 2019. “Indigenous Multilevel Governance and Power Relations.” Theory, Politics, Governance 7 (2): 250–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622671.2017.1360197.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcantara, C., and J. Nelles. 2014. “Indigenous People and the State in Settler Societies: Toward a More Robust Definition of Multilevel Governance.” Publius: The Journal of Federalism 44 (1): 183–204. https://doi.org/10.1093/publius/pjt013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcantara, C., and Z. Spicer. 2016. “A New Model for Making Aboriginal Policy? Evaluating the Kelowna Accord and the Promise of Multilevel Governance in Canada.” Canadian Public Administration 59 (2): 183–203. https://doi.org/10.1111/capa.12166.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alfred, G. R. 1999. Peace, Power, Righteousness: An Indigenous Manifesto. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Alfred, G. T. 2009. “Colonialism and State Dependency.“ International Journal of Indigenous Health 5 (2): 42–60.
   Google Scholar
• Alook, A., E. Eaton, D. Gray-Donald, J. Laforest, C. Lameman, and B. Tucker. 2023. The End of This World: Climate Justice in So-Called Canada. Toronto, Ontario: Between The Lines.
   Google Scholar
• Asfaw, H. W., S. Lake First Nation, T. K. McGee, and A. C. Christianson. 2019a. “Evacuation Preparedness and the Challenges of Emergency Evacuation in Indigenous Communities in Canada: The Case of Sandy Lake First Nation, Northern Ontario.” International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 34 (March): 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2018.11.005.
   Google Scholar
• Asfaw, H. W., S. Lake First Nation, T. K. McGee, and A. C. Christianson. 2019b. “A Qualitative Study Exploring Barriers and Facilitators of Effective Service Delivery for Indigenous Wildfire Hazard Evacuees During Their Stay in Host Communities.” International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 41 (December): 101300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2019.101300.
   Google Scholar
• Bakvis, H. 2003. “In the Shadows of Hierarchy: Intergovernmental Governance in Canada and the European Union.” Canadian Public Administration 56 (2): 203–218. https://doi.org/10.1111/capa.12014.
   Google Scholar
• Barker, A. J. 2009. “The Contemporary Reality of Canadian Imperialism: Settler Colonialism and the Hybrid Colonial State.” The American Indian Quarterly 33 (3): 325–351. https://doi.org/10.1353/aiq.0.0054.
   Google Scholar
• Barker, A. J. 2012. “Locating Settler Colonialism.” Journal of Colonialism & Colonial History 13 (3): 3. https://doi.org/10.1353/cch.2012.0035.
   Google Scholar
• BCAFN (British Columbia Assembly of First Nations). n.d. “First Nations Leadership Council.” Accessed June 5, 2023. https://www.bcafn.ca/about-bcafn/our-partners/first-nations-leadership-council.
   Google Scholar
• BC Gov News. 2020. “First Nations, Emergency Program Act Orders for COVID-19 Response.” Accessed March 26, 2020. https://news.gov.bc.ca/factsheets/first-nations-emergency-program-act-orders-for-covid-19-response.
   Google Scholar
• Beverly, J. L., and P. Bothwell. 2011. “Wildfire Evacuations in Canada 1980–2007.” Natural Hazards 59 (1): 571–596. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-011-9777-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Billeck, S. 2018. “Red Cross, Bear Clan Formalize Working Relationship.” Winnipeg Sun, Accessed April 19, 2018. https://winnipegsun.com/news/local-news/0420-bear-clan-red-cross.
   Google Scholar
• Borrows, J. 2015. “The Durability of Terra Nullius: Tsilhqot’in Nation V. British Columbia.” University of British Columbia Law Review 48 (3): 701–742.
   Google Scholar
• Breen, M. G., and A. Thomas. 2021. “ National minorities and Indigenous Peoples in multilevel governance.“ In A Research Agenda for Multilevel Governance, edited byA. Benz, J. Broschek, and M. Lederer, 191–207. Northampton, Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Cameron, E. S. 2012. “Securing Indigenous Politics: A Critique of the Vulnerability and Adaptation Approach to the Human Dimensions of Climate Change in the Canadian Arctic.” Global Environmental Change 22 (1): 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.11.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christianson, A. C., T. K. McGee, and Whitefish Lake First Nation 459. 2019. “Wildfire Evacuation Experiences of Band Members of Whitefish Lake First Nation 459, Alberta, Canada.” Natural Hazards 98 (1): 9–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3556-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corntassel, J. 2012. “Re-Envisioning Resurgence: Indigenous Pathways to Decolonization and Sustainable Self-Determination.” Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society 1 (1): 86–101.
   Google Scholar
• Coulthard, G. S., and T. Alfred. 2014. Red Skin, White Masks: Rejecting the Colonial Politics of Recognition. Indigenous Americas. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. https://doi.org/10.5749/minnesota/9780816679645.001.0001.
   Google Scholar
• ECCC (Environment and Climate Change Canada). 2022. Canada’s National Adaptation Strategy: Building Resilient Communities and a Strong Economy. Ottawa, Canada: Government of Canada.
   Google Scholar
• EMBC (Emergency Management BC). 2010. Emergency Social Services Field Guide: The Heart of Disaster Response. Victoria, British Columbia: BC Gov.
   Google Scholar
• EMBC (Emergency Management BC). 2022. Evacuation Operational Guide for First Nations and Local Authorities in British Columbia: A Guide to Managing Evacuations During Emergency Response. Victoria, British Columbia: BC Gov.
   Google Scholar
• EMBC (Emergency Management BC). n.d. “Emergency Operations Centre Operational Guidelines, 2nd Edition.” Accessed May 9, 2022. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/public-safety-and-emergency-services/emergency-preparedness-response-recovery/local-government/eoc_operational_guidelines.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Erni, S., L. Johnston, Y. Boulanger, F. Manka, P. Bernier, B. Eddy, A. Christianson, T. Swystun, and S. Gauthier. 2021. “Exposure of the Canadian Wildland–Human Interface and Population to Wildland Fire, Under Current and Future Climate Conditions.” Canadian Journal of Forest Research 51 (9): 1357–1367. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2020-0422.
   Google Scholar
• Fischer, F., D. Torgerson, A. Durnová, and M. Orsini. 2015. “Introduction to Critical Policy Studies.“ In Handbook of Critical Policy Studies, edited byF. Fischer, D. Torgerson, A. Durnová, and M. Orsini, 1–24. Northampton, Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Government of Canada. 2022. Emergency Management Service Agreements. https://www.sac-isc.gc.ca/eng/1669207681911/1669207720136
   Google Scholar
• Government of Canada, Office of the Auditor General of Canada. 2016. “Report 2—Mitigating the Impacts of Severe Weather.” May 31, 2016. https://www.oag-bvg.gc.ca/internet/english/parl_cesd_201605_02_e_41381.html.
   Google Scholar
• Henderson, W. B. 2006. “Indian Act | the Canadian Encyclopedia.”|“indian Act | the Canadian Encyclopedia.” Accessed February 7, 2006. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/indian-act.
   Google Scholar
• Henstra, D. 2013. Multilevel Governance and Emergency Management in Canadian Municipalities. Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman, K. M., A. C. Christianson, S. Dickson-Hoyle, K. Copes-Gerbitz, W. Nikolakis, D. A. Diabo, R. McLeod, I. Boran, et al. 2022. “The Right to Burn: Barriers and Opportunities for Indigenous-Led Fire Stewardship in Canada.” FACETS 7 (January): 464–481. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2021-0062.
   Google Scholar
• Hooghe, L., and G. Marks. 2003. “Unraveling the Central State. But How? Types of Multi-Level Governance.” American Political Science Review 97 (2): 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055403000649.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• INAN (Standing Committee on Indigenous and Northern Affairs). 2017a. “Evidence - INAN (42-1) - No. 84 - House of Commons of Canada.” Accessed November 21, 2017. https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/42-1/INAN/meeting-84/evidence.
   Google Scholar
• INAN (Standing Committee on Indigenous and Northern Affairs). 2017b. “Evidence - INAN (42-1) - No. 85 - House of Commons of Canada.” Accessed November 23, 2017. https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/42-1/INAN/meeting-85/evidence.
   Google Scholar
• INAN (Standing Committee on Indigenous and Northern Affairs). 2017c. “Evidence - INAN (42-1) - No. 88 - House of Commons of Canada.” Accessed December 5, 2017. https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/42-1/INAN/meeting-88/evidence.
   Google Scholar
• INAN (Standing Committee on Indigenous and Northern Affairs). 2018. “Evidence - INAN (42-1) - No. 94 - House of Commons of Canada.” Accessed February 8, 2018. https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/42-1/INAN/meeting-94/evidence.
   Google Scholar
• Indigenous Climate Action. 2021. “Decolonizing Climate Policy in Canada Report from Phase One.”
   Google Scholar
• IRSHDC (The Indian Residential School History and Dialogue Centre). 2020. “Emergencies, Indigenous Governance, and Jurisdiction.” Implementing UNDRIP in BC: A Discussion Paper Series.
   Google Scholar
• King, H., and S. Pasternak. 2018. Canada’s Emerging Indigenous Rights Framework: A Critical Analysis. Toronto, Canada: Yellowhead Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Ladner, K. 2010. “Colonialism Isn’t the Only Obstacle: Indigenous Peoples and Multilevel Government in Canada.” In Federalism, Feminism and Multilevel Governance, edited by M. S. Hausmann and J. Vickers, 83–96. London: Ashgate.
   Google Scholar
• Ladner, K. L. 2019. “Beyond Crown Sovereignty: Good Governance and Treaty Constitutionalism.” In Canada at 150: Federalism and Democratic Renewal, edited by E. Goodyear-Grant and K. Hanniman, 227–252. Kingston, Canada: The State of the Federation 2017. Montréal ; Kingston: Institute of Intergovernmental Relations, School of Policy Studies, Queen’s University, McGill-Queen’s University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvscxtb3.17.
   Google Scholar
• Latta, A. 2018. “Indigenous Rights and Multilevel Governance: Learning from the Northwest Territories Water Stewardship Strategy.” International Indigenous Policy Journal 9 (2): 2. https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2018.9.2.4.
   Google Scholar
• Luft, R. E. 2016. “Governing Disaster: The Politics of Tribal Sovereignty in the Context of (Un)natural Disaster.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 39 (5): 802–820. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2015.1080376.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marino, E. 2012. “The Long History of Environmental Migration: Assessing Vulnerability Construction and Obstacles to Successful Relocation in Shishmaref, Alaska.” Global Environmental Change 22 (2): 374–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.09.016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marks, G. 1993. “23 Structural Policy and Multilevel Governance in the EC.” In The State of the European Community, edited by A. Cafruny and G. Rosenthal, 391–410. New York: Lynne Rienner Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781685856540-024.
   Google Scholar
• McCrossan, M. 2015. “Contaminating and Collapsing Indigenous Space: Judicial Narratives of Canadian Territoriality.” Settler Colonial Studies 5 (1): 20–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/2201473X.2014.925609.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCrossan, M., and K. L. Ladner. 2016. “Eliminating Indigenous Jurisdictions: Federalism, the Supreme Court of Canada, and Territorial Rationalities of Power.” Canadian Journal of Political Science 49 (3): 411–431. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423916000822.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGee, T. K. 2021. “Evacuating First Nations During Wildfires in Canada.” Fire Safety Journal 120 (March): 103120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2020.103120.
   Google Scholar
• McGee, T. K., and A. C. Christianson. 2021. First Nations Wildfire Evacuations: A Guide for Communities and External Agencies. Vancouver, BC: Purich Books.
   Google Scholar
• McGee, T. K., M. Ojibway Nation, and A. C. Christianson. 2019. “Residents’ Wildfire Evacuation Actions in Mishkeegogamang Ojibway Nation, Ontario, Canada.” International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 33 (February): 266–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2018.10.012.
   Google Scholar
• Mihychuk, H. M. 2018. From the Ashes: Reimagining Fire Safety and Emergency Management in Indigenous Communities. 42nd Parliament, 1st Session. Ottawa, Canada: The Standing Committee on Indigenous and Northern Affairs.
   Google Scholar
• Moosa-Mitha, M. 2005. “Situating Anti-Oppressive Theories within Critical and Difference-Centred Perspectives.” In Research as Resistance: Revisiting Critical, Indigenous, and Anti-Oppressive Approaches, edited by L. A. Brown and S. Strega. Second, 37–72. Toronto, Ontario: Canadian Scholars’ Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mottershead, K. D., T. K. McGee, and A. Christianson. 2020. “Evacuating a First Nation Due to Wildfire Smoke: The Case of Dene Tha’ First Nation.” International Journal of Disaster Risk Science 11 (3): 274–286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-020-00281-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulderrig, J., N. Montesano Montessori, and M. Farrelly. 2019. “Chapter 1: Introducing Critical Policy Discourse Analysis In: Critical Policy Discourse Analysis.” In Critical Policy Discourse Analysis, 1–22. Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781788974967.00006.
   Google Scholar
• NCCIH (National Collaborating Centre for Indigenous Health). 2022. “Chapter 2. Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples’ Health in Canada.” In Health of Canadians in a Changing Climate, by Government of Canada. edited by Berry, P. and R. Schnitter, https://changingclimate.ca/health-in-a-changing-climate/chapter/2-0/.
   Google Scholar
• Papillon, M. 2012. “Adapting Federalism: Indigenous Multilevel Governance in Canada and the United States.” Publius: The Journal of Federalism 42 (2): 289–312. https://doi.org/10.1093/publius/pjr032.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papillon, M., and A. Juneau, eds. 2015. Aboriginal Multilevel Governance. Canada/Institute of Intergovernmental Relations 2013. Montréal, Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Peters, G., and P. Jon. 2004. “Multi-Level Governance and Democracy: A Faustian Bargain?” In Multi-Level Governance, edited by I. Bache and M. Flinders, 75–92. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/0199259259.003.0005.
   Google Scholar
• Public Safety Canada. 2017. “2016-2017 Evaluation of the Disaster Financial Assistance Arrangements: Final Report.” Ottawa. https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.835224/publication.html.
   Google Scholar
• Public Safety Canada. 2019. “Emergency Management in Indigenous Communities.” Accessed June 5, 2023. https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/mrgnc-mngmnt/ndgns-cmmnts-en.aspx.
   Google Scholar
• Rifkin, M. 2013. “Settler Common Sense.” Settler Colonial Studies 3 (3–04): 322–340. https://doi.org/10.1080/2201473X.2013.810702.
   Google Scholar
• Ristroph, E. B. 2019. “Improving Justice and Avoiding Colonization in Managing Climate Change Related Disasters: A Case Study of Alaska Native Villages.” American Indian Law Journal 7 (2): 33.
   Google Scholar
• Royal Canadian Mounted Police. 2019. “Indian Residential Schools and the RCMP.” Accessed July 23, 2019. https://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/indigenous-autochtone/resident-schools-pensionnats-eng.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Sankey, S. 2018. Blueprint for Wildland Fire Science in Canada (2019-2029). Edmonton: Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service.
   Google Scholar
• Scharbach, J., and J. B. Waldram. 2016. “Asking for a Disaster: Being ‘At Risk’ in the Emergency Evacuation of a Northern Canadian Aboriginal Community.” Human Organization 75 (1): 59–70. https://doi.org/10.17730/0018-7259-75.1.59.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt, J. J. 2022. “Dispossession by Municipalization: Property, Pipelines, and Divisions of Power in Settler Colonial Canada.” Environment & Planning C: Politics & Space 40 (5): 1182–1199. https://doi.org/10.1177/23996544211065654.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson, A. 2011. “Settlement’s Secret.” Cultural Anthropology 26 (2): 205–217. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1360.2011.01095.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snelgrove, C., R. Kaur Dhamoon, and J. Corntassel. 2014. “Unsettling Settler Colonialism: The Discourse and Politics of Settlers, and Solidarity with Indigenous Nations.” Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society 3 (2): 32.
   Google Scholar
• SRSS (Secwepemcú̓lecw Restoration and Stewardship Society). 2021. “Elephant Hill: Secwépemc Leadership and Lessons Learned from the Collective Story of Wildfire Recovery.” https://www.srssociety.com/lessonslearned.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Starblanket, G. 2019. “The Numbered Treaties and the Politics of Incoherency.” Canadian Journal of Political Science 52 (3): 443–459. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423919000027.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stark, H. K. 2023. “Generating a Critical Resurgence Together”. In University of Toronto Press - Indigenous Resurgence in an Age of Reconciliation, In edited by H. K. Stark, A. Craft, and H. K. Aikau, 3–20. University of Toronto Press. https://utorontopress.com/9781487544591/indigenous-resurgence-in-an-age-of-reconciliation.
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada. 2011. Aboriginal Peoples in Canada - First Nations People, Metis and Inuit. Ottawa: National Household Survey. https://www.deslibris.ca/ID/237902.
   Google Scholar
• Takeda, L. 2014. Islands’ Spirit Rising: Reclaiming the Forests of Haida Gwaii. University of British Columbia Press. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/distributed/I/bo70051170.html.
   Google Scholar
• Thériault, S. 2012. “Indigenous Peoples and Climate Change Policies: A Comparative Assessment of Indigenous Governance Models in Canada.” In Local Climate Change Law, edited by B. Richardson, 14600. Edward Elgar Publishing: https://doi.org/10.4337/9780857937483.00019.
   Google Scholar
• Tuck, E., and K. Wayne Yang. 2012. “Decolonization is Not a Metaphor.” Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society 1 (1): 40.
   Google Scholar
• Turner, M. C., and Associates. 2021. “Indigenous Emergency Management Partnership Table Virtual Conference 2021 Conference Summary Report.” Victoria, British Columbia: Emergency Management BC (EMBC).
   Google Scholar
• Verhaeghe, C., E. Feltes, and J. Stacey. 2019. “NAGWEDIẐK’AN GWANEŜ GANGU Ch’inidẑed GANEXWILAGH: The Fires Awakened Us: Tsilhqot’in Report on the 2017 Wildfires.” Tsilhqot’in National Government. https://www.tsilhqotin.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/the-fires-awakened-us.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Whyte, K. 2017. “Indigenous Climate Change Studies: Indigenizing Futures, Decolonizing the Anthropocene.” English Language Notes 55 (1–2): 153–162. https://doi.org/10.1215/00138282-55.1-2.153.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfe, P. 2006. “Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of the Native.” Journal of Genocide Research 8 (4): 387–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623520601056240.
   Google Scholar
• Wyatt, S., M. Hébert, J.-F. Fortier, É.-J. Blanchet, and N. Lewis. 2019. “Strategic Approaches to Indigenous Engagement in Natural Resource Management: Use of Collaboration and Conflict to Expand Negotiating Space by Three Indigenous Nations in Quebec, Canada.” Canadian Journal of Forest Research 49 (4): 375–386. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2018-0253.
   Google Scholar