The use of probiotics and prebiotics in decolonizing pathogenic bacteria from the gut; a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical outcomes

References

• Jandhyala SM, Talukdar R, Subramanyam C, Vuyyuru H, Sasikala M, Reddy DN. Role of the normal gut microbiota. World J Gastroenterol. 2015;21(29):8836–25. doi:10.3748/wjg.v21.i29.8787.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ley RE, Lozupone CA, Hamady M, Knight R, Gordon JI. Worlds within worlds: evolution of the vertebrate gut microbiota. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2008;6(10):776–788.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ducarmon QR, Zwittink RD, Hornung BVH, van Schaik W, Young VB, Kuijper EJ. Gut microbiota and colonization resistance against bacterial enteric infection. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2019;83(3):1–29. doi:10.1128/MMBR.00007-19.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamamoto S, Saito M, Tamura A, Prawisuda D, Mizutani T, Yotsuyanagi H, Blachier F. The human microbiome and COVID-19: A systematic review. PLoS One [Internet]. 2021;16(6):1–13. Available from: 10.1371/journal.pone.0253293.
   Google Scholar
• Anthony WE, Burnham CAD, Dantas G, Kwon JH. The gut microbiome as a reservoir for antimicrobial resistance. J Infect Dis. 2021;223(Supplement_3):S209–13. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiaa497.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim S, Covington A, Pamer EG. The intestinal microbiota: Antibiotics, colonisation resistance, and enteric pathogens. Immunol Rev. 2017;279(1):90–105. doi:10.1111/imr.12563.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dharmaratne P, Rahman N, Leung A, Ip M. Is there a role of faecal microbiota transplantation in reducing antibiotic resistance burden in gut? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Med [Internet]. 2021;53(1):662–681. Available from: 10.1080/07853890.2021.1927170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberfroid MB. Roberfroid_2018. Prebiotics and probiotics: are they functional foods? Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71(6):1682S–1687S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/71.6.1682S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karbalaei M, Keikha M. Probiotics and intestinal decolonization of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms; a reality or fantasy? Ann Med Surg [Internet]. 2022;80:104269. Available from: 10.1016/j.amsu.2022.104269.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amorim C, Silvério SC, Cardoso BB, Alves JI, Pereira MA, Rodrigues LR. In vitro assessment of prebiotic properties of xylooligosaccharides produced by Bacillus subtilis 3610. Carbohydr Polym [Internet]. 2020;229:115460. Available from: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.115460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janapatla RP, Dudek A, Chen CL, Chuang CH, Chien KY, Feng Y, Yeh YM, Wang YH, Chang HJ, Lee YC. et al. Marine prebiotics mediate decolonization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from gut by inhibiting secreted virulence factor interactions with mucins and enriching bacteroides population. J Biomed Sci [Internet]. 2023;30(1):1–20. Available from: 10.1186/s12929-023-00902-w.
   Google Scholar
• Roson-Calero N, Ballesté-Delpierre C, Fernández J, Vila J. Insights on current strategies to decolonize the gut from multidrug-resistant bacteria: pros and cons. Antibiotics. 2023;12(6):1–13. doi:10.3390/antibiotics12061074.
   Google Scholar
• Ljungquist O, Kampmann C, Resman F, Riesbeck K, Tham J. Probiotics for intestinal decolonization of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae: a randomised, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Clin Microbiol Infect [Internet]. 2020;26(4):456–462. Available from: 10.1016/j.cmi.2019.08.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matzaras R, Nikopoulou A, Protonotariou E, Christaki E. Gut microbiota modulation and prevention of dysbiosis as an alternative approach to antimicrobial resistance: a narrative review. Yale J Biol Med. 2022;95(4):479–494. doi:10.1101/gr.096651.109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mourand G, Paboeuf F, Fleury MA, Jouy E, Bougeard S, Denamur E, Kempf I. Escherichia coli probiotic strain ed1a in pigs has a limited impact on the gut carriage of extended-spectrum-β-lactamase-producing E. coli. Cross Escherichia coli Probiotic Strain ED1a In. 2017;61(1):1–16. doi:10.1128/AAC.01293-16.
   Google Scholar
• Tannock GW, Tiong IS, Priest P, Munro K, Taylor C, Richardson A, Schultz M. Testing probiotic strain Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (Mutaflor) for its ability to reduce carriage of multidrug-resistant E. coli by elderly residents in long-term care facilities. J Med Microbiol. 2011;60(3):366–370. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.025874-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moher D, Shamseer L, Clarke M, Ghersi D, Liberati A, Petticrew M, Shekelle P, Stewart LA. Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (prisma-p) 2015 statement. Syst Rev. 2015;4(1):1–9. doi:10.1186/2046-4053-4-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amir-Behghadami M, Janati A. Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes and Study (PICOS) design as a framework to formulate eligibility criteria in systematic reviews. Emerg Med J. 2020;37(6):387. doi:10.1136/emermed-2020-209567.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang F, Feng J, Chen P, Liu X, Ma M, Zhou R, Chang Y, Liu J, Li J, Zhao Q. Probiotics in Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy: Systematic review and network meta-analysis. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol [Internet]. 2017;41(4):466–475. Available from: 10.1016/j.clinre.2017.04.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penumetcha SS, Ahluwalia S, Irfan R, Khan SA, Rohit Reddy S, Vasquez Lopez ME, Zahid M, Busmail A, Mohammed L. The efficacy of probiotics in the management of Helicobacter Pylori: A systematic review. Cureus. 2021;13. doi:10.7759/cureus.20483.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richard A, Laura R, Harshavardhan K, Sonia M, Khamis HJ, Paliy O. Distal Gut Microbiota of Adolescent Children is Different from That of Adults. Fems Microbiology Ecology. 2011;77(2):404–412. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2011.01120.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Jamovi Project [Internet]. 2020; Available from: https://www.jamovi.org.
   Google Scholar
• Wallace BC, Dahabreh IJ, Trikalinos TA, Lau J, Trow P, Schmid CH. Closing the gap between methodologists and end-users: R as a computational back-end. J Stat Softw. 2012;49(5):1–15. doi:10.18637/jss.v049.i05.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin L, Chu H, Murad MH, Hong C, Qu Z, Cole SR, Chen Y. Empirical comparison of publication bias tests in meta-analysis. Journal Of General Internal Medicine. 2018;33(8):1260–1267. doi:10.1007/s11606-018-4425-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Enst WA, Ochodo E, Scholten RJ, Hooft L, Leeflang MM. Investigation of publication bias in meta-analyses of diagnostic test accuracy: A meta-epidemiological study. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2014;14(1):1–11. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-14-70.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alberda C, Marcushamer S, Hewer T, Journault N, Kutsogiannis D. Feasibility of a lactobacillus casei drink in the intensive care unit for prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhea and clostridium difficile. Nutrients. 2018;10(5):10. doi:10.3390/nu10050539.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barker AK, Duster M, Valentine S, Hess T, Archbald-Pannone L, Guerrant R, Safdar N. A randomised controlled trial of probiotics for Clostridium difficile infection in adults (PICO). J Antimicrob Chemother. 2017;72(11):3177–3180. doi:10.1093/jac/dkx254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dall LB, Lausch KR, Gedebjerg A, Fuursted K, Storgaard M, Larsen CS. Do probiotics prevent colonisation with multi-resistant Enterobacteriaceae during travel? A randomised controlled trial. Travel Med Infect Dis [Internet]. 2019;27:81–86. Available from: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2018.11.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Regt MJA, Willems RJL, Hené RJ, Siersema PD, Verhaar HJJ, Hopmans TEM, Bonten MJM. Effects of probiotics on acquisition and spread of multiresistant enterococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54(7):2801–2805. doi:10.1128/AAC.01765-09.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doron S, Hibberd PL, Goldin B, Thorpe C, McDermott L, Snydman DR. Effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG administration on vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus colonisation in adults with comorbidities. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59(8):4593–4599. doi:10.1128/AAC.00300-15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eggers S, Barker AK, Valentine S, Hess T, Duster M, Safdar N. Effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosus HN001 on carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: Results of the impact of probiotics for reducing infections in veterans (IMPROVE) study. BMC Infect Dis. 2018;18(1):1–8. doi:10.1186/s12879-018-3028-6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gerding DN, Meyer T, Lee C, Cohen SH, Murthy UK, Poirier A, Van Schooneveld TC, Pardi DS, Ramos A, Barron MA. et al. Administration of spores of nontoxigenic clostridium difficile strain M3 for prevention of recurrent C difficile infection: A randomised clinical trial. JAMA - J Am Med Assoc. 2015;313(17):1719–1727. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.3725.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He C, Kong F, Chai X, Zou C, Zhu X, Zhao D, Tan LTH. Effect of probiotic-assisted eradication of caga +/vaca s1m1 helicobacter pylori on intestinal flora. Biomed Res Int. 2022;2022:1–12. doi:10.1155/2022/8607671.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klarin B, Wullt M, Palmquist I, Molin G, Larsson A, Jeppsson B. Lactobacillus plantarum 299v reduces colonisation of Clostridium difficile in critically ill patients treated with antibiotics. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2008;52(8):1096–1102. doi:10.1111/j.1399-6576.2008.01748.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwon JH, Bommarito KM, Reske KA, Seiler SM, Hink T, Babcock HM, Kollef MH, Fraser VJ, Burnham CAD, Dubberke ER. Randomised controlled trial to determine the impact of probiotic administration on colonisation with multidrug-resistant organisms in critically ill patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2015;36(12):1451–1454. doi:10.1017/ice.2015.195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magee HR. Probiotic treatment of vancomycin-resistant enterococci: A randomised controlled trial. Med J Aust. 2007;187(5):320. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2007.tb01267.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mcfarland LV, Surawicz CM, Elmer GW, Moyer KA, Melcher SA, Fekety R, Bowen KE, Cox JL, Noorani Z, Harrington G. et al. A randomised placebo-controlled trial of saccharomyces boulardii in combination with standard antibiotics for clostridium difficile disease. JAMA: J Am Med Assoc. 1994;271(24):1913–1918. doi:10.1001/jama.1994.03510480037031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nouvenne A, Ticinesi A, Meschi T. Carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in elderly frail patients admitted to medical wards. Ital J Med. 2015;9:116–119. doi:10.4081/itjm.2014.476.
   Google Scholar
• Rauseo AM, Hink T, Reske KA, Seiler SM, Bommarito KM, Fraser VJ, Burnham CAD, Dubberke ER. A randomized controlled trial of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG on antimicrobial-resistant organism colonization. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2022;43(2):167–173. doi:10.1017/ice.2021.94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin IMC, Mollerup S, Broholm C, Knudsen SB, Baker A, Helms M, Holm MKA, Kallemose T, Westh H, Dahl Knudsen J. et al. No effect of lactobacillus rhamnosus gg on eradication of colonization by vancomycin-resistant enterococcus faecium or microbiome diversity in hospitalized adult patients. Microbiol Spectr. 2022;10(3):1–12. doi:10.1128/spectrum.02348-21.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salomão MCC, Heluany-Filho MA, Menegueti MG, de Kraker MEA, Martinez R, Bellissimo-Rodrigues F. A randomised clinical trial on the effectiveness of a symbiotic product to decolonise patients harboring multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacilli. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2016;49(5):559–566. doi:10.1590/0037-8682-0233-2016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan Å, Johansson A, Svenungsson B, Nord CE. Effect of lactobacillus F19 on the emergence of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in the intestinal microflora. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2004;54(4):791–797. doi:10.1093/jac/dkh406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence SJ, Korzenik JR, Mundy LM. Probiotics for recurrent Clostridium difficile disease [1]. J Med Microbiol. 2005;54(9):905–906. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.46096-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Surawicz CM, McFarland LV, McFarland LV, Greenberg RN, Rubin M, Fekety R, Mulligan ME, Garcia RJ, Brandmarker S, Bowen K. et al. The search for a better treatment for recurrent clostridium difficile disease: Use of high-dose vancomycin combined with saccharomyces boulardii. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31(4):1012–1017. doi:10.1086/318130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szachta P, Ignyś I, Cichy W. An evaluation of the ability of the probiotic strain lactobacillus rhamnosus GG to eliminate the gastrointestinal carrier state of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in colonised children. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2011;45(10):872–877. doi:10.1097/MCG.0b013e318227439f.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang B, Tang L, Huang C, Tian C, Chen L, He Z, Yang G, Zuo L, Zhao G, Liu E. et al. The effect of probiotics supplementation on gut microbiota after helicobacter pylori eradication: A multicenter randomized controlled trial. Infect Dis Ther [Internet]. 2021;10(1):317–333. Available from: 10.1007/s40121-020-00372-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viazis N, Argyriou K, Kotzampassi K, Christodoulou DK, Apostolopoulos P, Georgopoulos SD, Liatsos C, Giouleme O, Koustenis K, Veretanos C. et al. A four-probiotics regimen combined with a standard helicobacter pylori-eradication treatment reduces side effects and increases eradication rates. Nutrients. 2022;14(3):1–10. doi:10.3390/nu14030632.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warrack S, Panjikar P, Duster M, Safdar N. Tolerability of a probiotic in subjects with a history of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonisation. Benef Microbes. 2014;5(4):389–396. doi:10.3920/BM2013.0062.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wieërs G, Verbelen V, Van Den Driessche M, Melnik E, Vanheule G, Marot JC, Cani PD. Do probiotics during in-hospital antibiotic treatment prevent colonisation of gut microbiota with multi-drug-resistant bacteria? a randomized placebo-controlled trial comparing saccharomyces to a mixture of lactobacillus, bifidobacterium, and saccharomyce. Front Public Heal. 2021;8:1–10. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.578089.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wullt M, Hagslätt MLJ, Odenholt I. Lactobacillus plantarum 299v for the treatment of recurrent clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Scand J Infect Dis. 2003;35(6–7):365–367. doi:10.1080/00365540310010985.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang C, Liang L, Lv P, Liu L, Wang S, And WZ, Chen Y. Effects of non-viable Lactobacillus reuteri combining with 14-day standard triple therapy on Helicobacter pylori eradication: A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Helicobacter. 2021;26(6):e12856. doi:10.1111/hel.12856.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oh B, Kim BS, Kim JW, Kim JS, Koh SJ, Kim BG, Lee KL, Chun J. The effect of probiotics on gut microbiota during the helicobacter pylori eradication: randomized controlled trial. Helicobacter. 2016;21(3):165–174. doi:10.1111/hel.12270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajani J, Dastar B, Samadi F, Karimi Torshizi MA, Abdulkhani A, Esfandyarpour S. Effect of extracted galactoglucomannan oligosaccharides from pine wood (Pinus brutia) on Salmonella typhimurium colonisation, growth performance and intestinal morphology in broiler chicks. Br Poult Sci. 2016;57(5):682–692. doi:10.1080/00071668.2016.1200013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adhikari P, Cosby DE, Cox NA, Franca MS, Williams SM, Gogal RM, Ritz CW, Kim WK. Effect of dietary fructooligosaccharide supplementation on internal organs Salmonella colonisation, immune response, ileal morphology, and ileal immunohistochemistry in laying hens challenged with Salmonella enteritidis. Poult Sci [Internet]. 2018;97(7):2525–2533. Available from: 10.3382/ps/pey101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsumoto K, Ichimura M, Tsuneyama K, Moritoki Y, Tsunashima H, Omagari K, Hara M, Yasuda I, Miyakawa H, Kikuchi K. et al. Fructo-oligosaccharides and intestinal barrier function in a methionine–choline-deficient mouse model of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. PLoS One. 2017;12(6):1–14. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0175406.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mao B, Gu J, Li D, Cui S, Zhao J, Zhang H, Chen W. Effects of different doses of fructooligosaccharides (FOS) on the composition of mice fecal microbiota, especially the bifidobacterium composition. Nutrients. 2018;10(8):10. doi:10.3390/nu10081105.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ribeiro AML, Vogt LK, Canal CW, Cardoso MRDI, Labres RV, Streck AF and Bessa MC. Effects of Prebiotics and probiotics on the colonisation and immune response of broiler chickens challenged with Salmonella Enteritidis. Brazilian J Poult Sci [Internet]. 2007;9(3):193–200. Available from: http://www.sensores-de-medida.es/sensing_sl/SENSORES-Y-TRANSDUCTORES_35/Células-de-carga—Sensores-de-fuerza_69/Sensores-de-fuerza-tracción-compresión_239/Célula-de-carga-patrón-KAL_230.html.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monteagudo-Mera A, Arthur JC, Jobin C, Keku T, Bruno-Barcena AJ, Azcarate-Peril MA. High purity galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) enhance specific Bifidobacterium species and their metabolic activity in the mouse gut microbiome. BM. 2016;7(2):247–264. doi:10.3920/BM2015.0114.
   Google Scholar
• Lin SH, Chou LM, Chien YW, Chang JS, Lin CI. Prebiotic Effects of Xylooligosaccharides on the Improvement of Microbiota Balance in Human Subjects. Gastroenterol Res Pract. 2016;2016:1–6. doi:10.1155/2016/5789232.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajani J, Dastar B, Samadi F, Karimi Torshizi MA, Abdulkhani A, Esfandyarpour S. Effect of extracted galactoglucomannan oligosaccharides from pine wood (Pinus brutia) on Salmonella typhimurium colonisation, growth performance and intestinal morphology in broiler chicks. Br Poult Sci. 2016;57:682–692. doi:10.1080/00071668.2016.1200013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pourabedin M, Chen Q, Yang MM, Zhao X-M, Nakatsu C. Mannan- and xylooligosaccharides modulate caecal microbiota and expression of inflammatory-related cytokines and reduce caecal Salmonella Enteritidis colonisation in young chickens. FEMS Microbiol Ecol. 2017;93(1):1–11. doi:10.1093/femsec/fiw226.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spring P, Wenk C, Dawson KA, Newman KE. The effects of dietary mannanoligosaccharides on cecal parameters and the concentrations of enteric bacteria in the ceca of salmonella-challenged broiler chicks. Poult Sci [Internet]. 2000;79(2):205–211. Available from: 10.1093/ps/79.2.205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowry VK, Farnell MB, Ferro PJ, Swaggerty CL, Bahl A, Kogut MH. Purified β-glucan as an abiotic feed additive up-regulates the innate immune response in immature chickens against Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis. Int J Food Microbiol. 2005;98(3):309–318. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.06.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piewngam P, Zheng Y, Nguyen TH, Dickey SW, Joo HS, Villaruz AE, Glose KA, Fisher EL, Hunt RL, Li B. et al. Pathogen elimination by probiotic Bacillus via signalling interference. Nature [Internet]. 2018;562(7728):532–537. Available from: 10.1038/s41586-018-0616-y.
   Google Scholar
• Chen MJ, Chen CC, Huang YC, Tseng CC, Hsu JT, Lin YF, Fang YJ, Wu MS, Liou JM. The efficacy of Lactobacillus acidophilus and rhamnosus in the reduction of bacterial load of Helicobacter pylori and modification of gut microbiota—a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial. Helicobacter. 2021;26(6):1–14. doi:10.1111/hel.12857.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishbein SRS, Mahmud B, Dantas G. Antibiotic perturbations to the gut microbiome. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2023;21(12):772–788. doi:10.1038/s41579-023-00933-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz DJ, Langdon AE, Dantas G. Understanding the impact of antibiotic perturbation on the human microbiome. Genome Med. 2020;12(1):1–12. doi:10.1186/s13073-020-00782-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramirez J, Guarner F, Bustos Fernandez L, Maruy A, Sdepanian VL, Cohen H. Antibiotics as major disruptors of gut Microbiota. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020;10:1–10. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2020.572912.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah T, Baloch Z, Shah Z, Cui X, Xia X. The intestinal microbiota: Impacts of antibiotics therapy, colonisation resistance, and diseases. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22(12):22. doi:10.3390/ijms22126597.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland LV, Goh S. Are probiotics and prebiotics effective in the prevention of travellers’ diarrhea: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2019;27:11–19. doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2018.09.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Titelman E, Hasan CM, Iversen A, Nauclér P, Kais M, Kalin M, Giske CG. Faecal carriage of extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae is common 12 months after infection and is related to strain factors. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20(8):O508–O515. doi:10.1111/1469-0691.12559.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galina D, Valdovska A. Effect of probiotics and herbals on health and shedding of resistant Escherichia coli in piglets. Res Rural Dev. 2017;1:251–258.
   Google Scholar
• Deep S. Probiotics may offset gut damage caused by antibiotics. Med News Today [Internet]. 2023; Available from: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/probiotics-may-offset-gut-damage-caused-by-antibiotics.
   Google Scholar
• Luchen CC, Chibuye M, Spijker R, Simuyandi M, Chisenga C, Bosomprah S, Chilengi R, Schultsz C, Mende DR, Harris VC. Impact of antibiotics on gut microbiome composition and resistome in the first years of life in low- to middle-income countries: A systematic review. PLoS Med [Internet]. 2023;20(6):1–20. Available from: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1004235.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patangia DV, Anthony Ryan C, Dempsey E, Paul Ross R, Stanton C. Impact of antibiotics on the human microbiome and consequences for host health. Microbiologyopen. 2022;11(1):1–23. doi:10.1002/mbo3.1260.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonnell L, Gilkes A, Ashworth M, Rowland V, Harries TH, Armstrong D, White P. Association between antibiotics and gut microbiome dysbiosis in children: systematic review and meta-analysis. Gut Microbes [Internet]. 2021;13(1):1–18. Available from: 10.1080/19490976.2020.1870402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hemarajata P, Versalovic J. Effects of probiotics on gut microbiota: Mechanisms of intestinal immunomodulation and neuromodulation. Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 2013;6(1):39–51. doi:10.1177/1756283X12459294.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernández-Alonso M, Aguirre Camorlinga A, Messiah SE, Marroquin E. Effect of adding probiotics to an antibiotic intervention on the human gut microbial diversity and composition: A systematic review. J Med Microbiol. 2022;71:001625. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.001625.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kesavelu D, Jog P. Current understanding of antibiotic associated dysbiosis and approaches for its management. Ther Adv Infect Dis. 2023;10:1–18. doi:10.1177/20499361231154443.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ooi CY, Dilley AV, Day AS. Saccharomyces boulardii in a child with recurrent Clostridium difficile. Pediatr Int. 2009;51(1):156–158. doi:10.1111/j.1442-200X.2008.02782.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wombwell E, Patterson ME, Bransteitter B, Gillen L. The effect of saccharomyces boulardii primary prevention on risk of hospital-onset clostridioides difficile infection in hospitalized patients administered antibiotics frequently associated with c. difficile infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2021;73(9):e2512–e2518. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa808.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latif A, Shehzad A, Niazi S, Zahid A, Ashraf W, Iqbal MW, Rehman A, Riaz T, Aadil RM, Khan IM. et al. Probiotics: mechanism of action, health benefits and their application in food industries. Front Microbiol. 2023;14:14. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2023.1216674.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plaza-Diaz J, Ruiz-Ojeda FJ, Gil-Campos M, Gil A. Mechanisms of Action of Probiotics. Adv Nutr. 2019;10:S49–66. doi:10.1093/advances/nmy063.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen HR, Larsen CN, Kæstel P, Rosholm LB, Sternberg C, Michaelsen KF, Frøkiær H. Immunomodulating potential of supplementation with probiotics: a doseâ??response study in healthy young adults. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2006;47(3):380–390. doi:10.1111/j.1574-695X.2006.00109.x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Éliás AJ, Barna V, Patoni C, Demeter D, Veres DS, Bunduc S, Erőss B, Hegyi P, Földvári-Nagy L, Lenti K. Probiotic supplementation during antibiotic treatment is unjustified in maintaining the gut microbiome diversity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Med [Internet]. 2023;21(1):1–18. Available from: 10.1186/s12916-023-02961-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Washburn RL, Sandberg D, Gazdik Stofer MA. Supplementation of a single species probiotic does not affect diversity and composition of the healthy adult gastrointestinal microbiome. Hum Nutr Metab [Internet]. 2022;28:200148. Available from: 10.1016/j.hnm.2022.200148.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muwonge A, Karuppannan AK, Opriessnig T. Probiotics mediated gut microbiota diversity shifts are associated with reduction in histopathology and shedding of Lawsonia intracellularis. Anim Microbiome. 2021;3(1):3. doi:10.1186/s42523-021-00084-6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grazul H, Kanda LL, Gondek D. Impact of probiotic supplements on microbiome diversity following antibiotic treatment of mice. Gut Microbes [Internet]. 2016;7(2):101–114. Available from: 10.1080/19490976.2016.1138197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Z, Li L, Wang S, Wei J, Qu L, Pan L, Xu K. The role of the gut microbiota and probiotics associated with microbial metabolisms in cancer prevention and therapy. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13(1):e1–e8. doi:10.1055/s-0041-1742095.
   Google Scholar
• Indiani CMDSP, Rizzardi KF, Castelo PM, Ferraz LFC, Darrieux M, Parisotto TM. Child obes and Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio in the gut Microbiota: A systematic review. Childhood Obesity. 2018;14(8):501–509. doi:10.1089/chi.2018.0040.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magne F, Gotteland M, Gauthier L, Zazueta A, Pesoa S, Navarrete P, Balamurugan R. The Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio: A relevant marker of gut dysbiosis in obese patients? Nutrients. 2020;12(5):12. doi:10.3390/nu12051474.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stojanov S, Berlec A, Štrukelj B. The influence of probiotics on the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio in the treatment of obesity and inflammatory bowel disease. Microorganisms. 2020;8(11):1715–1716. doi:10.3390/microorganisms8111715.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rizzatti G, Lopetuso LR, Gibiino G, Binda C, Gasbarrini A. Proteobacteria: A common factor in human diseases. Biomed Res Int. 2017;2017:1–7. doi:10.1155/2017/9351507.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown GD, Taylor PR, Reid DM, Willment JA, Williams DL, Martinez-Pomares L, Wong SYC, Gordon S. Dectin-1 is a major β-glucan receptor on macrophages. J Exp Med. 2002;196(3):407–412. doi:10.1084/jem.20020470.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown GD, Gordon S. A new receptor for β-glucans. Nature. 2001;413(6851):36–37. doi:10.1038/35092620.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jin Y, Li P, Wang F. β-glucans as potential immunoadjuvants: A review on the adjuvanticity, structure-activity relationship and receptor recognition properties. Vaccine. 2018;36(35):5235–5244. Available from: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.07.038.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macfarlane GT, Cummings JH. Probiotics and prebiotics: Can regulating the activities of intestinal bacteria benefit health? West J Med. 1999;171(3):187–191.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gibson GR, Probert HM, Van LJ, Rastall RA, Roberfroid MB. Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: updating the concept of prebiotics. Nutr Res Rev. 2004;17(2):259–275. doi:10.1079/NRR200479.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ji J, Jin W, Liu SJ, Jiao Z, Li X. Probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics in health and disease. MedComm. 2023;4(6):1–23. doi:10.1002/mco2.420.
   Google Scholar
• Hartemink R, Van Laere KMJ, Rombouts FM. Growth of enterobacteria on fructo-oligosaccharides. J Appl Microbiol. 1997;83(3):367–374. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.1997.00239.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valyshev AV, Kirillov VA, Kirillov DA, Bukharin OV. The effect of inulin on the biological properties of enterobacteria. Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol i Immunobiol. 2000;1:79–80.
   Google Scholar
• Gibson GR. Dietary modulation of the human gut microflora using the prebiotics oligofructose and inulin. J Nutr [Internet]. 1999;129(7):1438S–1441S. Available from: 10.1093/jn/129.7.1438S.
   Google Scholar
• Jung TH, Jeon WM, Han KS. In vitro effects of dietary inulin on human fecal microbiota and butyrate production. J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2015;25(9):1555–1558. doi:10.4014/jmb.1505.05078.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langlands SJ, Hopkins MJ, Coleman N, Cummings JH. Prebiotic carbohydrates modify the mucosa associated microflora of the human large bowel. Gut. 2004;53(11):1610–1616. doi:10.1136/gut.2003.037580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolida S, Tuohy K, Gibson GR. Prebiotic effects of inulin and oligofructose. Br J Nutr. 2002;87(S2):S193–7. doi:10.1079/BJN/2002537.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Delgado-Fernández P, Corzo N, Olano A, Hernández-Hernández O, Moreno FJ. Effect of selected prebiotics on the growth of lactic acid bacteria and physicochemical properties of yoghurts. Int Dairy J. 2019;89:77–85. doi:10.1016/j.idairyj.2018.09.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akhavan N, Hrynkiewicz K, Thiem D, Randazzo C, Walsh AM, Guinan KJ, O’Sullivan JT, Stadnicka K. Evaluation of probiotic growth stimulation using prebiotic ingredients to optimise compounds for in ovo delivery. Front Microbiol. 2023;14:1–12. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2023.1242027.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar