The predictive power of saliva electrolytes exceeds that of saliva microbiomes in diagnosing early childhood caries

References

• Benjamin RM. Oral health: the silent epidemic. 433021. 2010;125(2):158–14.
   Google Scholar
• Li MY, Zhi QH, Zhou Y, et al. Impact of early childhood caries on oral health-related quality of life of preschool children. Eur J Paediatr Dent. 2015;16(1):65–72.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selwitz RH, Ismail AI, Pitts NB. Dental caries. Lancet. 2007;369(9555):51–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomson WM. Public health aspects of paediatric dental treatment under general anaesthetic. Dent J (Basel). 2016;4(2). DOI:https://doi.org/10.3390/dj4020020
   Google Scholar
• Schroth RJ, Pang JL, Levi JA, et al. Trends in pediatric dental surgery for severe early childhood caries in Manitoba, Canada. J Can Dent Assoc. 2014;80:e65.
   Google Scholar
• Phantumvanit P, Makino Y, Ogawa H, et al. WHO global consultation on public health intervention against early childhood caries. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2018;46(3):280–287. .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teo TK, Ashley PF, Louca C. An in vivo and in vitro investigation of the use of ICDAS, DIAGNOdent pen and CarieScan PRO for the detection and assessment of occlusal caries in primary molar teeth. Clin Oral Investig. 2014;18(3):737–744.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nuvvula S, Bhumireddy JR, Kamatham R, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of direct digital radiography and conventional radiography for proximal caries detection in primary teeth: a systematic review. J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent. 2016;34(4):300–305.
   Google Scholar
• Ferreira Zandona A, Santiago E, Eckert G, et al. Use of ICDAS combined with quantitative light-induced fluorescence as a caries detection method. Caries Res. 2010;44(3):317–322.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bader JD, Shugars DA, Bonito AJ. A systematic review of the performance of methods for identifying carious lesions. J Public Health Dent. 2002;62(4):201–213.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez J, Tellez M, Pretty IA, et al. Non-cavitated carious lesions detection methods: a systematic review. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2013;41(1):54–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenzel A, Kirkevang LL. Students’ attitudes to digital radiography and measurement accuracy of two digital systems in connection with root canal treatment. Eur J Dent Educ. 2004;8(4):167–171.
   Google Scholar
• Gomez J. Detection and diagnosis of the early caries lesion. BMC Oral Health. 2015;15(Suppl 1):S3.
   Google Scholar
• Pretty IA, Ekstrand KR. Detection and monitoring of early caries lesions: a review. Eur Arch Paediatr Dent. 2016;17(1):13–25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katkar RA, Tadinada SA, Amaechi BT, et al. Optical coherence tomography. Dent Clin North Am. 2018;62(3):421–434.
   Google Scholar
• Abogazalah N, Ando M. Alternative methods to visual and radiographic examinations for approximal caries detection. J Oral Sci. 2017;59(3):315–322.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huysmans MC, Longbottom C. The challenges of validating diagnostic methods and selecting appropriate gold standards. J Dent Res. 2004;83(Spec No C):C48–52.
   Google Scholar
• Ekstrand KR, Zero DT, Martignon S, et al. Lesion activity assessment. Monogr Oral Sci. 2009;21:63–90.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dzidic M, Collado MC, Abrahamsson T, et al. Oral microbiome development during childhood: an ecological succession influenced by postnatal factors and associated with tooth decay. Isme J. 2018;12(9):2292–2306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Y, Wang S, Wu C, et al. Oral microbiome alterations associated with early childhood caries highlight the importance of carbohydrate metabolic activities. mSystems. 2019;4(6). DOI:https://doi.org/10.1128/mSystems.00450-19.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanner ACR, Kressirer CA, Rothmiller S, et al. The caries microbiome: implications for reversing dysbiosis. Adv Dent Res. 2018;29(1):78–85.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Teng F, Yang F, Huang S, et al. Prediction of early childhood caries via spatial-temporal variations of oral microbiota. Cell Host Microbe. 2015;18(3):296–306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu C, Yuan C, Ao S, et al. The predictive potentiality of salivary microbiome for the recurrence of early childhood caries. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2018;8:423.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidd E, Fejerskov O. Changing concepts in cariology: forty years on. Dent Update. 2013;40(4):277–278, 280–272, 285–276.
   Google Scholar
• Gao X, Jiang S, Koh D, et al. Salivary biomarkers for dental caries. Periodontol 2000. 2016;70(1):128–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka M, Margolis HC. Release of mineral ions in dental plaque following acid production. Arch Oral Biol. 1999;44(3):253–258.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mei ML, Nudelman F, Marzec B, et al. Formation of fluorohydroxyapatite with silver diamine fluoride. J Dent Res. 2017;96(10):1122–1128.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abou Neel EA, Aljabo A, Strange A, et al. Demineralization-remineralization dynamics in teeth and bone. Int J Nanomedicine. 2016;11:4743–4763.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippert F. Chapter 3: macroelements: ca, Na, K, P, Cl. Monogr Oral Sci. 2020;28:22–31.
   Google Scholar
• Duncan C, Dougall H, Johnston P, et al. Chemical generation of nitric oxide in the mouth from the enterosalivary circulation of dietary nitrate. Nat Med. 1995;1(6):546–551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novo DR, Mello JE, Rondan FS, et al. Bromine and iodine determination in human saliva: challenges in the development of an accurate method. Talanta. 2019;191:415–421.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hicks J, Garcia-Godoy F, Flaitz C. Biological factors in dental caries: role of saliva and dental plaque in the dynamic process of demineralization and remineralization (part 1). J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2003;28(1):47–52.
   Google Scholar
• Lu HX, Tao DY, Lo ECM, et al. The 4th national oral health survey in the Mainland of China: background and methodology. Chin J Dent Res. 2018;21(3):161–165. .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyati SA, Naveen Kumar R, Kumar V, et al. Salivary flow rate, pH, buffering capacity, total protein, oxidative stress and antioxidant capacity in children with and without dental caries. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2018;42(6):445–449.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO (World Health Organization) Oral Health Surveys: Basic Methods. 5th ed. WHO; Monts, France: 2013. pp. 42–47.
   Google Scholar
• Assaf AV, Meneghim Mde C, Zanin L, et al. Assessment of different methods for diagnosing dental caries in epidemiological surveys. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2004;32(6):418–425.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seow WK. Clinical diagnosis of enamel defects: pitfalls and practical guidelines. Int Dent J. 1997;47(3):173–182.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen ZF, Darvell BW, Leung VW. Validation of ion chromatography for human salivary anionic analysis. Arch Oral Biol. 2004;49(11):855–862.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dilhari A, Sampath A, Gunasekara C, et al. Evaluation of the impact of six different DNA extraction methods for the representation of the microbial community associated with human chronic wound infections using a gel-based DNA profiling method. AMB Express. 2017;7(1):179.
   Google Scholar
• Teng F, Darveekaran Nair SS, Zhu P, et al. Impact of DNA extraction method and targeted 16S-rRNA hypervariable region on oral microbiota profiling. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):16321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jing G, Sun Z, Wang H, et al. Parallel-META 3: comprehensive taxonomical and functional analysis platform for efficient comparison of microbial communities. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):40371.
   Google Scholar
• McDonald D, Price MN, Goodrich J, et al. An improved Greengenes taxonomy with explicit ranks for ecological and evolutionary analyses of bacteria and archaea. Isme J. 2012;6(3):610–618.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Su X, Xu J, Ning K. Meta-Storms: efficient search for similar microbial communities based on a novel indexing scheme and similarity score for metagenomic data. Bioinformatics. 2012;28(19):2493–2501.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park SN, Lim YK, Kook JK. Development of quantitative real-time PCR primers for detecting 42 oral bacterial species. Arch Microbiol. 2013;195(7):473–482.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jing G, Liu L, Wang Z, et al. Microbiome search engine 2: a platform for taxonomic and functional search of global microbiomes on the whole-microbiome level. mSystems. 2021;6(1). DOI:https://doi.org/10.1128/mSystems.00943-20.
   Google Scholar
• Al-Hebshi NN, Baraniya D, Chen T, et al. Metagenome sequencing-based strain-level and functional characterization of supragingival microbiome associated with dental caries in children. J Oral Microbiol. 2019;11(1):1557986.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He J, Tu Q, Ge Y, et al. Taxonomic and functional analyses of the supragingival microbiome from caries-affected and caries-free hosts. Microb Ecol. 2018;75(2):543–554. .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen W, Jiang Q, Yan G, et al. The oral microbiome and salivary proteins influence caries in children aged 6 to 8 years. BMC Oral Health. 2020;20(1):295.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson I, Witkowska E, Kaveh B, et al. The microbiome in populations with a low and high prevalence of caries. J Dent Res. 2016;95(1):80–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leone CW, Oppenheim FG. Physical and chemical aspects of saliva as indicators of risk for dental caries in humans. J Dent Educ. 2001;65(10):1054–1062.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dawes C, Wong DTW. Role of saliva and salivary diagnostics in the advancement of oral health. J Dent Res. 2019;98(2):133–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross EL, Beall CJ, Kutsch SR, et al. Beyond Streptococcus mutans: dental caries onset linked to multiple species by 16S rRNA community analysis. PLoS One. 2012;7(10):e47722.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Y, Ge Y, Saxena D, et al. Genetic profiling of the oral microbiota associated with severe early-childhood caries. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45(1):81–87.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belstrom D, Fiehn NE, Nielsen CH, et al. Altered bacterial profiles in saliva from adults with caries lesions: a case-cohort study. Caries Res. 2014;48(5):368–375.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker MR, Paster BJ, Leys EJ, et al. Molecular analysis of bacterial species associated with childhood caries. J Clin Microbiol. 2002;40(3):1001–1009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Houte J. Role of micro-organisms in caries etiology. J Dent Res. 1994;73(3):672–681.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kianoush N, Adler CJ, Nguyen KA, et al. Bacterial profile of dentine caries and the impact of pH on bacterial population diversity. PLoS One. 2014;9(3):e92940.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kressirer CA, Chen T, Lake Harriman K, et al. Functional profiles of coronal and dentin caries in children. J Oral Microbiol. 2018;10(1):1495976.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takahashi N. Oral microbiome metabolism: from “Who are they?” to “What are they doing?”. J Dent Res. 2015;94(12):1628–1637.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yasunaga H, Takeshita T, Shibata Y, et al. Exploration of bacterial species associated with the salivary microbiome of individuals with a low susceptibility to dental caries. Clin Oral Investig. 2017;21(8):2399–2406.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreth J, Merritt J, Shi W, et al. Competition and coexistence between Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sanguinis in the dental biofilm. J Bacteriol. 2005;187(21):7193–7203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doel JJ, Hector MP, Amirtham CV, et al. Protective effect of salivary nitrate and microbial nitrate reductase activity against caries. Eur J Oral Sci. 2004;112(5):424–428.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radcliffe CE, Akram NC, Hurrell F, et al. Effects of nitrite and nitrate on the growth and acidogenicity of Streptococcus mutans. J Dent. 2002;30(7–8):325–331.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaura E, Twetman S. Critical appraisal of oral pre- and probiotics for caries prevention and care. Caries Res. 2019;53(5):514–526.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karshan M. Ammonia, urea and dental caries. Alpha Omegan. 1946;40:17–20.
   Google Scholar
• LeGeros RZ. Calcium phosphates in oral biology and medicine. Monogr Oral Sci. 1991;15:1–201.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lakomaa EL, Rytomaa I. Mineral composition of enamel and dentin of primary and permanent teeth in Finland. Scand J Dent Res. 1977;85(2):89–95.
   Google Scholar
• De Sousa ET, Lima-Holanda AT, Nobre-Dos-Santos M. Changes in the salivary electrolytic dynamic after sucrose exposure in children with early childhood caries. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):4146.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lenton S, Nylander T, Teixeira SC, et al. A review of the biology of calcium phosphate sequestration with special reference to milk. Dairy Sci Technol. 2015;95(1):3–14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duggal MS, Chawla HS, Curzon ME. A study of the relationship between trace elements in saliva and dental caries in children. Arch Oral Biol. 1991;36(12):881–884.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hara AT, Zero DT. The caries environment: saliva, pellicle, diet, and hard tissue ultrastructure. Dent Clin North Am. 2010;54(3):455–467.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kahharova D, Brandt BW, Buijs MJ, et al. Maturation of the oral microbiome in caries-free toddlers: a longitudinal study. J Dent Res. 2020;99(2):159–167. .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason MR, Nagaraja HN, Camerlengo T, et al. Deep sequencing identifies ethnicity-specific bacterial signatures in the oral microbiome (vol 8, e77287, 2013). PLoS One. 2014;9(6):e99933.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurley E, Barrett MPJ, Kinirons M, et al. Comparison of the salivary and dentinal microbiome of children with severe-early childhood caries to the salivary microbiome of caries-free children. BMC Oral Health. 2019;19(1). DOI:https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-018-0693-1
   Google Scholar
• Jiang S, Gao XL, Jin LJ, et al. Salivary microbiome diversity in caries-free and caries-affected children. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;17(12):1978.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang F, Zeng XW, Ning K, et al. Saliva microbiomes distinguish caries-active from healthy human populations. Isme J. 2012;6(1):1–10. .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fejerskov O. Concepts of dental caries and their consequences for understanding the disease. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1997;25(1):5–12.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Featherstone JD. The continuum of dental caries–evidence for a dynamic disease process. J Dent Res. 2004;83(Spec No C):C39–42.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gonzalez-Cabezas C. The chemistry of caries: remineralization and demineralization events with direct clinical relevance. Dent Clin North Am. 2010;54(3):469–478.
   Google Scholar
• Engevik MA, Versalovic J. Biochemical features of beneficial microbes: foundations for therapeutic microbiology. Microbiol Spectr. 2017;5(5). DOI:https://doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.BAD-0012-2016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nie S, Henley WH, Miller SE, et al. An automated integrated platform for rapid and sensitive multiplexed protein profiling using human saliva samples. Lab Chip. 2014;14(6):1087–1098. .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar