References

• Akiki, T. J., Averill, C. L., & Abdallah, C. G. (2017). A network-based neurobiological model of PTSD: Evidence from structural and functional neuroimaging studies. Current Psychiatry Reports, 19(11), 81. doi:10.1007/s11920-017-0840-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aupperle, R. L., Melrose, A. J., Stein, M. B., & Paulus, M. P. (2011). Executive function and PTSD: Disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology, 62(2), 686–11. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.02.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(6), 893–897.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio, 78(2), 490–498.
   Google Scholar
• Beevers, C. G., Lee, H. J., Wells, T. T., Ellis, A. J., & Telch, M. J. (2011). Association of predeployment gaze bias for emotion stimuli with later symptoms of PTSD and depression in soldiers deployed in Iraq. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(7), 735–741. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10091309
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berg, A. O., Breslau, N., Lezak, M. D., Matchar, D. B., Mellman, T. A., Spiegel, D., & Vega, W. A. (2008). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: An assessment of the evidence. Institute of Medicine of The National Academies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• Binder, E. B., Bradley, R. G., Liu, W., Epstein, M. P., Deveau, T. C., Mercer, K. B., … Schwartz, A. C. (2008). Association of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse with risk of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults. Jama, 299(11), 1291–1305. doi:10.1001/jama.299.11.1291
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blake, D. D., Weathers, F. W., Nagy, L. M., Kaloupek, D. G., Gusman, F. D., Charney, D. S., & Keane, T. M. (1995). The development of a clinician‐administered PTSD scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8(1), 75–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM 5 (PCL 5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498. doi:10.1002/jts.22059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 748–766.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunet, A., Weiss, D. S., Metzler, T. J., Best, S. R., Neylan, T. C., Rogers, C., … Marmar, C. R. (2001). The peritraumatic distress inventory: A proposed measure of PTSD criterion A2. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(9), 1480–1485. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.9.1480
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burri, A., Maercker, A., Krammer, S., & Simmen-Janevska, K. (2013). Childhood trauma and PTSD symptoms increase the risk of cognitive impairment in a sample of former indentured child laborers in old age. PloS One, 8(2), e57826. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057826
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cannon, R., Lubar, J., Congedo, M., Thornton, K., Towler, K., & Hutchens, T. (2007). The effects of neurofeedback training in the cognitive division of the anterior cingulate gyrus. International Journal of Neuroscience, 117(3), 337–357. doi:10.1080/00207450500514003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, H., Kaplan, Z., Koresh, O., Matar, M. A., Geva, A. B., & Zohar, J. (2011). Early post-stressor intervention with propranolol is ineffective in preventing posttraumatic stress responses in an animal model for PTSD. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 21(3), 230–240. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2010.11.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dandeneau, S. D., Baldwin, M. W., Baccus, J. R., Sakellaropoulo, M., & Pruessner, J. C. (2007). Cutting stress off at the pass: Reducing vigilance and responsiveness to social threat by manipulating attention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(4), 651–666. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.4.651
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Bellis, M. D., Woolley, D. P., & Hooper, S. R. (2013). Neuropsychological findings in pediatric maltreatment: Relationship of PTSD, dissociative symptoms, and abuse/neglect indices to neurocognitive outcomes. Child Maltreatment, 18(3), 171–183. doi:10.1177/1077559513497420
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunkin, J. J., Leuchter, A. F., Cook, I. A., Kasl-Godley, J. E., Abrams, M., & Rosenberg-Thompson, S. (2000). Executive dysfunction predicts nonresponse to fluoxetine in major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 60(1), 13–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebner-Priemer, U. W., Mauchnik, J., Kleindienst, N., Schmahl, C., Peper, M., Rosenthal, M. Z., & Bohus, M. (2009). Emotional learning during dissociative states in borderline personality disorder. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience: JPN, 34(3), 214–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etkin, A., Egner, T., Peraza, D. M., Kandel, E. R., & Hirsch, J. (2006). Resolving emotional conflict: A role for the rostral anterior cingulate cortex in modulating activity in the amygdala. Neuron, 51(6), 871–882. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2006.07.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etkin, A., & Wager, T. D. (2007). Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: A meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(10), 1476–1488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falconer, E., Allen, A., Felmingham, K. L., Williams, L. M., & Bryant, R. A. (2013). Inhibitory neural activity predicts response to cognitive-behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 74(9), 895–901. doi:10.4088/JCP.12m08020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fani, N., Kitayama, N., Ashraf, A., Reed, L., Afzal, N., Jawed, F., & Bremner, J. D. (2009). Neuropsychological functioning in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder following short-term paroxetine treatment. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 42(1), 53–68.
   Google Scholar
• First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (1995). Biometrics research. New York State Psychiatric Institute; New York: 2002. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders, Research Version, Patient Edition. Clinical Trials Version (SCID-CT), 9(2), 92–104.
   Google Scholar
• Friesen, W. V., & Ekman, P. (1976). Pictures of facial affect. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting psychologists press.
   Google Scholar
• Geuze, E., Vermetten, E., de Kloet, C. S., Hijman, R., & Westenberg, H. G. (2009). Neuropsychological performance is related to current social and occupational functioning in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 26(1), 7–15. doi:10.1002/da.20476
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbertson, M. W., Paulus, L. A., Williston, S. K., Gurvits, T. V., Lasko, N. B., Pitman, R. K., & Orr, S. P. (2006). Neurocognitive function in monozygotic twins discordant for combat exposure: Relationship to posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115(3), 484–495. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.115.3.484
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gruzelier, J. H. (2014). EEG-neurofeedback for optimising performance. I: A review of cognitive and affective outcome in healthy participants. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 44, 124–141. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.09.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gyurak, A., Gross, J., Chan, L., & Etkin, A. (2013). Cognitive-affective remediation training intervention in anxiety and depression. Neuropsychopharmacology, 38, 231.
   Google Scholar
• Hallion, L. S., & Ruscio, A. M. (2011). A meta-analysis of the effect of cognitive bias modification on anxiety and depression. Psychological Bulletin, 137(6), 940–958. doi:10.1037/a0024355
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, J. P., Hayes, S. M., & Mikedis, A. M. (2012). Quantitative meta-analysis of neural activity in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biology of Mood & Anxiety Disorders, 2(1), 9. doi:10.1186/2045-5380-2-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heinrichs, M., Wagner, D., Schoch, W., Soravia, L. M., Hellhammer, D. H., & Ehlert, U. (2005). Predicting posttraumatic stress symptoms from pretraumatic risk factors: A 2-year prospective follow-up study in firefighters. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(12), 2276–2286. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.12.2276
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirschfeld, R. M., Williams, J. B., Spitzer, R. L., Calabrese, J. R., Flynn, L., Keck, P. E., Jr, … Russell, J. M. (2000). Development and validation of a screening instrument for bipolar spectrum disorder: The Mood Disorder Questionnaire. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(11), 1873–1875. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.11.1873
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoge, C. W., Castro, C. A., Messer, S. C., McGurk, D., Cotting, D. I., & Koffman, R. L. (2004). Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. New England Journal of Medicine, 2004(351), 13–22. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa040603
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoge, E. A., Worthington, J. J., Nagurney, J. T., Chang, Y., Kay, E. B., Feterowski, C. M., … Zusman, R. M. (2012). Effect of acute posttrauma propranolol on PTSD outcome and physiological responses during script‐driven imagery. CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 18(1), 21–27. doi:10.1111/j.1755-5949.2010.00227.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ipser, J., Seedat, S., & Stein, D. J. (2006). Pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder-a systematic review and meta-analysis. South African Medical Journal, 96(10), 1088–1096.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaeger, J., & Vieta, E. (2007). Functional outcome and disability in bipolar disorders: Ongoing research and future directions. Bipolar Disorders, 9(1‐2), 1–2. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2007.00441.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnsen, G. E., & Asbjørnsen, A. E. (2008). Consistent impaired verbal memory in PTSD: A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 111(1), 74–82. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2008.02.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klengel, T., Mehta, D., Anacker, C., Rex-Haffner, M., Pruessner, J. C., Pariante, C. M., … Nemeroff, C. B. (2013). Allele-specific FKBP5 DNA demethylation mediates gene-childhood trauma interactions. Nature Neuroscience, 16(1), 33–41. doi:10.1038/nn.3275
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koren, D., Arnon, I., & Klein, E. (2001). Long term course of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in traffic accident victims: A three-year prospective follow-up study. Behavior Research and Therapy, 39(12), 1449–1458. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00025-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kremen, W. S., Koenen, K. C., Boake, C., Purcell, S., Eisen, S. A., Franz, C. E., … Lyons, M. J. (2007). Pretrauma cognitive ability and risk for posttraumatic stress disorder: A twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(3), 361–368. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.3.361
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanius, R. A., Frewen, P. A., Tursich, M., Jetly, R., & McKinnon, M. C. (2015). Restoring large-scale brain networks in PTSD and related disorders: A proposal for neuroscientifically-informed treatment interventions. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6(1), 27313. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v6.27313
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanius, R. A., Vermetten, E., Loewenstein, R. J., Brand, B., Schmahl, C., Bremner, J. D., & Spiegel, D. (2010). Emotion modulation in PTSD: Clinical and neurobiological evidence for a dissociative subtype. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(6), 640–647. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09081168
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayr, U., Awh, E., & Laurey, P. (2003). Conflict adaptation effects in the absence of executive control. Nature Neuroscience, 6(5), 450–452. doi:10.1038/nn1051
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKinnon, M. C., Boyd, J. E., Frewen, P. A., Lanius, U. F., Jetly, R., Richardson, J. D., & Lanius, R. A. (2016). A review of the relation between dissociation, memory, executive functioning and social cognition in military members and civilians with neuropsychiatric conditions. Neuropsychologia, 90, 210–234. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.07.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nishi, D., Matsuoka, Y., Yonemoto, N., Noguchi, H., Kim, Y., & Kanba, S. (2010). Peritraumatic Distress Inventory as a predictor of post-traumatic stress disorder after a severe motor vehicle accident. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 64(2), 149–156. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2010.02065.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogle, C. M., Rubin, D. C., & Siegler, I. C. (2013). The impact of the developmental timing of trauma exposure on PTSD symptoms and psychosocial functioning among older adults. Developmental Psychology, 49(11), 2191–2200. doi:10.1037/a0031985
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parlar, M., Frewen, P. A., Oremus, C., Lanius, R. A., & McKinnon, M. C. (2016). Dissociative symptoms are associated with reduced neuropsychological performance in patients with recurrent depression and a history of trauma exposure. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7(1), 29061. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v7.29061
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pechtel, P., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2011). Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: An integrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 55–70. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-2009-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkonigg, A., Pfister, H., Stein, M. B., Höfler, M., Lieb, R., Maercker, A., & Wittchen, H. U. (2005). Longitudinal course of posttraumatic stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in a community sample of adolescents and young adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(7), 1320–1327. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.7.1320
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitman, R. K., Rasmusson, A. M., Koenen, K. C., Shin, L. M., Orr, S. P., Gilbertson, M. W., … Liberzon, I. (2012). Biological studies of post-traumatic stress disorder. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(11), 769–787. doi:10.1038/nrn3339
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitman, R. K., Sanders, K. M., Zusman, R. M., Healy, A. R., Cheema, F., Lasko, N. B., … Orr, S. P. (2002). Pilot study of secondary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol. Biological Psychiatry, 51(2), 189–192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polak, A. R., Witteveen, A. B., Reitsma, J. B., & Olff, M. (2012). The role of executive function in posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 141(1), 11–21. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivera-Vélez, G. M., González-Viruet, M., Martínez-Taboas, A., & Pérez-Mojica, D. (2014). Post-traumatic stress disorder, dissociation, and neuropsychological performance in Latina victims of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 23(1), 55–73. doi:10.1080/10538712.2014.864746
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, D., Kitchiner, N. J., Kenardy, J., & Bisson, J. I. (2009). Systematic review and meta-analysis of multiple-session early interventions following traumatic events. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(3), 293–301. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08040590
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, N. P., Kitchiner, N. J., Kenardy, J., & Bisson, J. I. (2010). Early psychological interventions to treat acute traumatic stress symptoms. The Cochrane Library: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, CD007944. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD007944.pub2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roca, V., Hart, J., Kimbrell, T., & Freeman, T. (2006). Cognitive function and dissociative disorder status among veteran subjects with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: A preliminary study. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 18(2), 226–230. doi:10.1176/jnp.2006.18.2.226
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1997). Comparability of telephone and face-to-face interviews in assessing axis I and II disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(11), 1593–1598. doi:10.1176/ajp.154.11.1593
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samuelson, K. W. (2011). Post-traumatic stress disorder and declarative memory functioning: A review. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 13(3), 346.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saunders, N., Downham, R., Turman, B., Kropotov, J., Clark, R., Yumash, R., & Szatmary, A. (2015). Working memory training with tDCS improves behavioral and neurophysiological symptoms in pilot group with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and with poor working memory. Neurocase, 21(3), 271–278. doi:10.1080/13554794.2014.890727
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, J. C., Matt, G. E., Wrocklage, K. M., Crnich, C., Jordan, J., Southwick, S. M., & Schweinsburg, B. C. (2015). A quantitative meta-analysis of neurocognitive functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 141(1), 105–140. doi:10.1037/a0038039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalev, A. Y., Ankri, Y., Israeli-Shalev, Y., Peleg, T., Adessky, R., & Freedman, S. (2012). Prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder by early treatment: Results from the Jerusalem Trauma Outreach And Prevention study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(2), 166–176. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.127
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalev, A. Y., Ankri, Y. L., Peleg, T., Israeli-Shalev, Y., & Freedman, S. (2011). Barriers to receiving early care for PTSD: Results from the Jerusalem trauma outreach and prevention study. Psychiatric Services, 62(7), 765–773. doi:10.1176/ps.62.7.pss6207_0765
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silverstein, S. M., Berten, S., Olson, P., Paul, R., Williams, L. M., Cooper, N., & Gordon, E. (2007). Development and validation of a World-Wide-Web-based neurocognitive assessment battery: WebNeuro. Behavior Research Methods, 39(4), 940–949.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sripada, R. K., King, A. P., Welsh, R. C., Garfinkel, S. N., Wang, X., Sripada, C. S., & Liberzon, I. (2012). Neural dysregulation in posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence for disrupted equilibrium between salience and default mode brain networks. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74(9), 904. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e318273bf33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein, M. B., Kerridge, C., Dimsdale, J. E., & Hoyt, D. B. (2007). Pharmacotherapy to prevent PTSD: Results from a randomized controlled proof‐of‐concept trial in physically injured patients. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(6), 923–932. doi:10.1002/jts.20270
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643. doi:10.1037/h0054651
   Google Scholar
• Vasterling, J. J., & Brailey, K. (2005). Neuropsychological findings in adults with PTSD. In J. J. Vasterling & C. R. Brewin (Eds.), Neuropsychology of PTSD: Biological, cognitive, and clinical perspectives (pp. 178–207). New York: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vernon, D., Egner, T., Cooper, N., Compton, T., Neilands, C., Sheri, A., & Gruzelier, J. (2003). The effect of training distinct neurofeedback protocols on aspects of cognitive performance. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 47(1), 75–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wald, I., Shechner, T., Bitton, S., Holoshitz, Y., Charney, D. S., Muller, D., … Bar-Haim, Y. (2011). Attention bias away from threat during life threatening danger predicts PTSD symptoms at one‐year follow-up. Depression and Anxiety, 28(5), 406–411. doi:10.1002/da.20808
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Blake, D. D., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., Marx, B. P., & Keane, T. M. (2016). The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5). 2013. Interview available from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov.
   Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Bovin, M. J., Lee, D. J., Sloan, D. M., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., … Marx, B. P. (2017). The clinician-administered PTSD scale for DSM–5 (CAPS-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation in military veterans. White River Junction, VT: National Center for PTSD.
   Google Scholar
• Wild, J., & Gur, R. C. (2008). Verbal memory and treatment response in post-traumatic stress disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 193(3), 254–255. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.045922
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wrocklage, K. M., Schweinsburg, B. C., Krystal, J. H., Trejo, M., Roy, A., Weisser, V., & Scott, J. C. (2016). Neuropsychological functioning in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: Associations with performance validity, comorbidities, and functional outcomes. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 22(4), 399–411. doi:10.1017/S1355617716000059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar