References

• Abe, O., Yamasue, H., Kasai, K., Yamada, H., Aoki, S., Iwanami, A., … Ohtomo, K. (2006). Voxel-based diffusion tensor analysis reveals aberrant anterior cingulum integrity in posttraumatic stress disorder due to terrorism. Psychiatry Res - Neuroimaging, 146(3), 231–13.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Admon, R., Leykin, D., Lubin, G., Engert, V., Andrews, J., Pruessner, J., & Hendler, T. (2013). Stress-induced reduction in hippocampal volume and connectivity with the ventromedial prefrontal cortex are related to maladaptive responses to stressful military service. Human Brain Mapping, 34(11), 2808–2816.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Admon, R., Lubin, G., Rosenblatt, J. D., Stern, O., Kahn, I., Assaf, M., & Hendler, T. (2013). Imbalanced neural responsivity to risk and reward indicates stress vulnerability in humans. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y.: 1991), 23(1), 28–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aupperle, R. L., Melrose, A. J., Stein, M. B., & Paulus, M. P. (2012). Executive function and PTSD: Disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology, 62(2), 686–694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayling, E., Aghajani, M., Fouche, J. P., & van der Wee, N. (2012). Diffusion tensor imaging in anxiety disorders. Current Psychiatry Reports, 14(3), 197–202.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(6), 893.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio, 78(2), 490–498.
   Google Scholar
• Ben-Zion, Z., Fine, N. B., Keynan, N. J., Admon, R., Green, N., Halevi, M., & Shalev, A. Y. (2018). Cognitive flexibility predicts PTSD symptoms: Observational and interventional studies. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blake, D. D., Weathers, F. W., Nagy, L. M., Kaloupek, D. G., Gusman, F. D., Charney, D. S., & Keane, T. M. (1995). The development of a clinician-administered PTSD scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8(1), 75–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanchard, E. (1996). Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34(8), 669–673.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonne, O., Brandes, D., Gilboa, A., Gomori, J. M., Shenton, M. E., Pitman, R. K., & Shalev, A. Y. (2001). Longitudinal MRI study of Hippocampal volume in trauma survivors with PTSD. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(8), 1248–1251.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bremner, J. D., Elzinga, B., Schmahl, C., & Vermetten, E. (2007). Structural and functional plasticity of the human brain in posttraumatic stress disorder. Progress in Brain Research, 167, 171–186.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busner, J., & Targum, S. D. (2007). The clinical global impressions scale: Applying a research tool in clinical practice. Psychiatry (Edgmont), 4(7), 28–37.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Casada, J. H., & Roache, J. D. (2005). Behavioral inhibition and activation in Posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193(2), 102–109.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidson, J. R. T., Stein, D. J., Shalev, A. Y., & Yehuda, R. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Acquisition, recognition, course, and treatment. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 16(2), 135–147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Bellis, M. D., Woolley, D. P., & Hooper, S. R. (2013). Neuropsychological findings in pediatric maltreatment. Child Maltreatment, 18(3), 171–183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Do, L. L. T. N. (2011). American Psychiatric Association diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV). In GoldsteinS., Naglieri J.A. (eds.). Encyclopedia of child behavior and development (pp. 84–85). Boston, MA: Springer US. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_113.
   Google Scholar
• Duval, E. R., Joshi, S. A., Russman Block, S., Abelson, J. L., & Liberzon, I. (2018). Insula activation is modulated by attention shifting in social anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 56, 56–62.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fani, N., King, T. Z., Jovanovic, T., Glover, E. M., Bradley, B., Choi, K., & Ressler, K. J. (2012). White matter integrity in highly traumatized adults with and without post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37(12), 2740–2746.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrari, M. C. F., Busatto, G. F., McGuire, P. K., & Crippa, J. A. S. (2008). Structural magnetic resonance imaging in anxiety disorders: An update of research findings. Revista Brasileira De Psiquiatria (Sao Paulo, Brazil: 1999), 30(3), 251–264.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fine, N. B., Achituv, M., Etkin, A., Merin, O., & Shalev, A. Y. (2018). Evaluating web-based cognitive-affective remediation in recent trauma survivors: Study rationale and protocol. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(1), 1442602.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (1995). Biometrics research. New York State Psychiatric Institute; New York: 2002. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders, Research Version, Patient Edition. Clinical Trials Version (SCID-CT), 9(2), 92–104.
   Google Scholar
• Fischl, B. (2012). FreeSurfer. Neuroimage, 62(2), 774–781.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freedman, S. A., Brandes, D., Peri, T., & Shalev, A. (1999a). Predictors of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder. A prospective study. The British Journal of Psychiatry: the Journal of Mental Science, 174(4). Retrieved from http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/174/4/353.short
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freedman, S. A., Brandes, D., Peri, T., & Shalev, A. Y. (1999b). Predictors of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder: A prospective study. The British Journal of Psychiatry: the Journal of Mental Science, 174(4), 353–359.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friston, K. J., Holmes, A. P., Worsley, K. J., Poline, J.-P., Frith, C. D., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1994). Statistical parametric maps in functional imaging: A general linear approach. Human Brain Mapping, 2(4), 189–210.
   Google Scholar
• Fydrich, T., Dowdall, D., & Chambless, D. L. (1992). Reliability and validity of the beck anxiety inventory. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 6(1), 55–61.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galatzer-Levy, I. R., Ankri, Y., Freedman, S., Israeli-Shalev, Y., Roitman, P., Gilad, M., … Felmingham, K. (2013). Early PTSD symptom trajectories: Persistence, recovery, and response to treatment: Results from the Jerusalem Trauma Outreach and Prevention Study (J-TOPS). PloS One, 8(8), e70084.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galatzer-Levy, I. R., & Bryant, R. A. (2013). 636,120 ways to have posttraumatic stress disorder. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 8(6), 651–662.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gilbertson, M. W., Shenton, M. E., Ciszewski, A., Kasai, K., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P., & Pitman, R. K. (2002). Smaller hippocampal volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma. Nature Neuroscience, 5(11), 1242–1247.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guy, W. (1976). CGI. Clinical global impressions. ECDEU, Assessment Manual for Psychopharmacology, 217–222.
   Google Scholar
• Hariri, A. R., Bookheimer, S. Y., & Mazziotta, J. C. (2003). Modulating emotional responses. Neuroreport, 11(1), 43–48.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart, R. P., Bagrodia, R., Rahman, N., Bryant, R. A., Titcombe-Parekh, R., Marmar, C. R., & Brown, A. D. (2017). Neuropsychological predictors of trauma centrality in OIF/OEF veterans. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirschfeld, R. M. A., Williams, J. B. W., Spitzer, R. L., Calabrese, J. R., Flynn, L., Keck, P. E., … Zajecka, J. (2000). Development and validation of a screening instrument for bipolar spectrum disorder: The mood disorder questionnaire. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(11), 1873–1875.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkinson, M., Beckmann, C. F., Behrens, T. E. J., Woolrich, M. W., & Smith, S. M. (2012). FSL. Neuroimage, 62(2), 782–790.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnsen, G. E., & Asbjørnsen, A. E. (2008). Consistent impaired verbal memory in PTSD: A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 111(1), 74–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahn, I., Yeshurun, Y., Rotshtein, P., Fried, I., Ben-Bashat, D., & Hendler, T. (2002). The role of the amygdala in signaling prospective outcome of choice. Neuron, 33(6), 983–994.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasai, K., Yamasue, H., Gilbertson, M. W., Shenton, M. E., Rauch, S. L., & Pitman, R. K. (2008). Evidence for acquired pregenual anterior cingulate gray matter loss from a twin study of combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 63(6), 550–556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder: The burden to the individual and to society. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61, 4–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the national comorbidity survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52(12), 1048.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, S. J., Jeong, D. U., Sim, M. E., Bae, S. C., Chung, A., Kim, M. J., & Lyoo, I. K. (2007). Asymmetrically altered integrity of cingulum bundle in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychobiology, 54(2), 120–125.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klumpp, H., Ho, S. S., Taylor, S. F., Phan, K. L., Abelson, J. L., & Liberzon, I. (2011). Trait anxiety modulates anterior cingulate activation to threat interference. Depression and Anxiety, 28(3), 194–201.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koch, S. B. J., van Zuiden, M., Nawijn, L., Frijling, J. L., Veltman, D. J., & Olff, M. (2016). Aberrant resting-state brain activity in posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Depression and Anxiety. doi:10.1002/da.22478
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenen, K. C., Driver, K. L., Oscar-Berman, M., Wolfe, J., Folsom, S., Huang, M. T., & Schlesinger, L. (2001). Measures of prefrontal system dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder. Brain and Cognition, 45(1), 64–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koren, D., Arnon, I., & Klein, E. (2001). Long term course of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in traffic accident victims: A three-year prospective follow-up study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(12), 1449–1458.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanius, R. A., Vermetten, E., Loewenstein, R. J., Brand, B., Schmahl, C., Bremner, J. D., & Spiegel, D. (2010). Emotion modulation in PTSD: Clinical and neurobiological evidence for a dissociative subtype. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(6), 640–647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leskin, L. P., & White, P. M. (2007). Attentional networks reveal executive function deficits in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychology, 21(3), 275–284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liberzon, I., & Sripada, C. S. (2007). The functional neuroanatomy of PTSD: A critical review. Progress in Brain Research, 167, 151–169.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmar, C. R., Weiss, D. S., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Jordan, B. K., Kulka, R. A., & Hough, R. L. (1994). Peritraumatic dissociation and posttraumatic stress in male Vietnam theater veterans. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(6), 902–907.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayou, R., Tyndel, S., & Bryant, B. (1997). Long-term outcome of motor vehicle accident injury. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59(6), 578–584.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Donnell, M. L., Creamer, M., Bryant, R. A., Schnyder, U., & Shalev, A. (2003). Posttraumatic disorders following injury: An empirical and methodological review. Clinical Psychology Review, 23(4), 587–603.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peleg, T., & Shalev, A. Y. (2006). Longitudinal studies of PTSD: Overview of findings and methods. CNS Spectrums, 11(8), 589–602.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkonigg, A., Pfister, H., Stein, M. B., Höfler, M., Lieb, R., Maercker, A., & Wittchen, H.-U. (2005). Longitudinal course of posttraumatic stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in a community sample of adolescents and young adults. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(7), 1320–1327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phan, K. L., Orlichenko, A., Boyd, E., Angstadt, M., Coccaro, E. F., Liberzon, I., & Arfanakis, K. (2009). Preliminary evidence of white matter abnormality in the uncinate fasciculus in generalized social anxiety disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 66(7), 691–694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pineles, S. L., Shipherd, J. C., Mostoufi, S. M., Abramovitz, S. M., & Yovel, I. (2009). Attentional biases in PTSD: More evidence for interference. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(12), 1050–1057.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitman, R. K., Rasmusson, A. M., Koenen, K. C., Shin, L. M., Orr, S. P., Gilbertson, M. W., … Liberzon, I. (2012). Biological studies of post-traumatic stress disorder. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 13(11), 769–787.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polak, A. R., Witteveen, A. B., Reitsma, J. B., & Olff, M. (2012). The role of executive function in posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 141(1), 11–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qi, W., Ratanatharathorn, A., Gevonden, M., Bryant, R., Delahanty, D., Matsuoka, Y., … Shalev, A. (2018). Application of data pooling to longitudinal studies of early post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): The international consortium to predict PTSD (ICPP) project. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9, 1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reitan, R. (1958). Validity of the trail making test as an indicator of organic brain damage. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 8, 271–276.
   Google Scholar
• Rivera-Vélez, G. M., González-Viruet, M., Martínez-Taboas, A., & Pérez-Mojica, D. (2014). Post-traumatic stress disorder, dissociation, and neuropsychological performance in latina victims of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse. doi:10.1080/10538712.2014.864746
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1997). Comparability of telephone and face-to-face interviews in assessing axis I and II disorders. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(11), 1593–1598.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samuelson, K. W. (2011). Post-traumatic stress disorder and declarative memory functioning: A review. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 13(3), 346–351. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22033732
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schuff, N., Zhang, Y., Zhan, W., Lenoci, M., Ching, C., Boreta, L., & Neylan, T. C. (2011). Patterns of altered cortical perfusion and diminished subcortical integrity in posttraumatic stress disorder: An MRI study. Neuroimage, 54, S62–S68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, J. C., Matt, G. E., Wrocklage, K. M., Crnich, C., Jordan, J., Southwick, S. M., & Schweinsburg, B. C. (2015). A quantitative meta-analysis of neurocognitive functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 141(1), 105–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalev, A. Y., Freedman,S., Peri, T., Brandes, D., & Sahar, T. (1997). Predicting PTSD intrauma survivors: prospective evaluation of self-report and clinicianadministeredinstruments. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 170(6), 558–564.
   Google Scholar
• Shalev, A., Liberzon, I., & Marmar, C. (2017). Post-traumatic stress disorder. The New England Journal of Medicine, 376(25), 2459–2469.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalev, A. Y. (1996). Prospective follow up studies of PTSD: Psychological and biological predictors. European Neuropsychopharmacology: The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 8, S112–S113.
   Google Scholar
• Shalev, A. Y., Ankri, Y., Israeli-Shalev, Y., Peleg, T., Adessky, R., & Freedman, S. (2012a). Prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder by early treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(2), 166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalev, A. Y., Ankri, Y., Israeli-Shalev, Y., Peleg, T., Adessky, R., & Freedman, S. (2012b). Prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder by early treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(2), 166–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalev, A. Y., Ankri, Y. L. E., Peleg, T., Israeli-Shalev, Y., & Freedman, S. (2011). Barriers to receiving early care for PTSD: Results from the Jerusalem trauma outreach and prevention study. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 62(7), 765–773.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalev, A. Y., & Freedman, S. (2005). PTSD following terrorist attacks: A prospective evaluation. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(6), 1188–1191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalev, A. Y., Gevonden, M., Ratanatharathorn, A., Laska, E., van der Mei, W. F., Qi, W., & Koenen, K. C. (2019). Estimating the risk of PTSD in recent trauma survivors: Results of the international consortium to predict PTSD (ICPP). World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 18(1), 77–87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalev, A. Y., Peri, T., Canetti, L., & Schreiber, S. (1996). Predictors of PTSD in injured trauma survivors. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 219–225.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shin, L. M., Rauch, S. L., & Pitman, R. K. (2006). Amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex, and hippocampal function in PTSD. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071(1), 67–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silverstein, S., Berten, S., Olson, P., Paul, R., Williams, L. M., Cooper, N., & Gordon, E. (2007). Development and validation of a World-Wide-Web-based neurocognitive assessment battery: WebNeuro. Behavior Research Methods, 39(4), 940–949.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sripada, R. K., King, A. P., Welsh, R. C., Garfinkel, S. N., Wang, X., Sripada, C. S., & Liberzon, I. (2012). Neural dysregulation in posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence for disrupted equilibrium between salience and default mode brain networks. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74(9), 904–911.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sripada, R. K., Marx, C. E., King, A. P., Rampton, J. C., Ho, S. S., & Liberzon, I. (2013). Allopregnanolone elevations following pregnenolone administration are associated with enhanced activation of emotion regulation neurocircuits. Biological Psychiatry, 73(11), 1045–1053.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein, M. B., Walker, J. R., Hazen, A. L., & Forde, D. R. (1997). Full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder: Findings from a community survey. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(8), 1114–1119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroop, J. R. (1935). Stroop color word test. Journal of Experimental Pathology, (18), 643–662. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3
   Google Scholar
• Vasterling, J. J., Brailey, K., Constans, J. I., & Sutker, P. B. (1998). Attention and memory dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychology, 12(1), 125–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Bovin, M. J., Lee, D. J., Sloan,D. M., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., ... & Marx, B. P. (2018). The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM–5 (CAPS-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation in military veterans. Psychological Assessment, 30(3), 383.
   Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Herman, D. S., Huska, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1993). The PTSD checklist: Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. In Annual convention of the international society for traumatic stress studies, San Antonio, TX (Vol. 462).
   Google Scholar
• Yehuda, R., McFarlane, A. C., & Shalev, A. Y. (1998a). Predicting the development of posttraumatic stress disorder from the acute response to a traumatic event. Biological Psychiatry, 44(12), 1305–1313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehuda, R., McFarlane, A. C., & Shalev, A. Y. (1998b). Predicting the development of posttraumatic stress disorder from the acute response to a traumatic event. Biological Psychiatry, 44(12), 1305–1313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Z.-J., Tang, L.-H., Wang, -Z.-Z., Yin, H., Chen, Y.-C., Wang, H.-N., & Li, L.-J. (2010). Psychopathological, biological, and neuroimaging characterization of posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors of a severe coalmining disaster in China. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 44(6), 385–392.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zoellner, L. A., Bedard-Gilligan, M. A., Jun, J. J., Marks, L. H., & Garcia, N. M. (2013). The evolving construct of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): DSM-5 criteria changes and legal implications. Psychological Injury and Law, 6(4), 277–289.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar