References

• American Psychiatric, Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Barnes, P. H. (2000). The experience of traumatic stress among urban firefighters. Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 14(4), 59–9.
   Google Scholar
• Ben-Ezra, M., Karatzias, T., Hyland, P., Brewin, C. R., Cloitre, M., Bisson, J. I., … Shevlin, M. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD (CPTSD) as per ICD-11 proposals: A population study in Israel. Depression and Anxiety, 35(3), 264–274.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger, W., Coutinho, E. S. F., Figueira, I., Marques-Portella, C., Luz, M. P., Neylan, T. C., … Mendlowicz, M. V. (2010). Rescuers at risk: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis of the worldwide current prevalence and correlates of PTSD in rescue workers. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47(6), 1001–1011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berninger, A., Webber, M. P., Cohen, H. W., Gustave, J., Lee, R., Niles, J. K., … Prezant, D. J. (2010). Trends of elevated PTSD risk in firefighters exposed to the World Trade Center disaster: 2001–2005. Public Health Reports, 125(4), 556–566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisson, J. I., Berliner, L., Cloitre, M., Forbes, D., Jensen, T. K., Lewis, C., … Roberts, N. P. (2019). The international society for traumatic stress studies new guidelines for the prevention and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: Methodology and development process. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(4), 475–483.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau, N. (2009). The epidemiology of trauma, PTSD, and other posttrauma disorders. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 10(3), 198–210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., Cloitre, M., Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., Maercker, A., Bryant, R. A., … Somasundaram, D. (2017). A review of current evidence regarding the ICD-11 proposals for diagnosing PTSD and complex PTSD. Clinical Psychology Review, 58, 1–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., Miller, J. K., Soffia, M., Peart, A., & Burchell, B. (2020). Posttraumatic stress disorder and complex posttraumatic stress disorder in UK police officers. Psychological Medicine, 1–9. doi:10.1017/S0033291720003025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christiansen, D. M., & Hansen, M. (2015). Accounting for sex differences in PTSD: A multi-variable mediation model. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6(1), 26068.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cloitre, M., Courtois, C. A., Charuvastra, A., Carapezza, R., Stolbach, B. C., & Green, B. L. (2011). Treatment of complex PTSD: Results of the ISTSS expert clinician survey on best practices. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(6), 615–627.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cloitre, M., Hyland, P., Bisson, J. I., Brewin, C. R., Roberts, N. P., Karatzias, T., & Shevlin, M. (2019). ICD-11 PTSD and Complex PTSD in the United States: A populationbased study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(6), 833–842.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cloitre, M., Shevlin, M., Brewin, C. R., Bisson, J. I., Roberts, N. P., Maercker, A., … Hyland, P. (2018). The International Trauma Questionnaire: Development of a self‐report measure of ICD‐11 PTSD and complex PTSD. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 138(6), 536–546.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cloitre, M., Stolbach, B. C., Herman, J. L., Kolk, B. V. D., Pynoos, R., Wang, J., & Petkova, E. (2009). A developmental approach to complex PTSD: Childhood and adult cumulative trauma as predictors of symptom complexity. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(5), 399–408.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coker, A. L., Weston, R., Creson, D. L., Justice, B., & Blakeney, P. (2005). PTSD symptoms among men and women survivors of intimate partner violence: The role of risk and protective factors. Violence and Victims, 20(6), 625.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Corneil, W., Beaton, R., Murphy, S., Johnson, C., & Pike, K. (1999). Exposure to traumatic incidents and prevalence of posttraumatic stress symptomatology in urban firefighters in two countries. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4(2), 131.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Courtois, C. A. (2004). Complex trauma, complex reactions: Assessment and treatment. Psychotherapy: Theory, research, practice, training, 41(4), 412.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Jongh, A., Amann, B. L., Hofmann, A., Farrell, D., & Lee, C. W. (2019). The status of EMDR therapy in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder 30 years after its introduction. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 13(4), 261–269.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Jongh, A., Resick, P. A., Zoellner, L. A., Van Minnen, A., Lee, C. W., Monson, C. M., … Rauch, S. A. (2016). Critical analysis of the current treatment guidelines for complex PTSD in adults. Depression and Anxiety, 33(5), 359–369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Ben, K. S., Scotti, J. R., Chen, Y. C., & Fortson, B. L. (2006). Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in firefighters. Work & Stress, 20(1), 37–48.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferry, F. R., Brady, S. E., Bunting, B. P., Murphy, S. D., Bolton, D., & O’Neill, S. M. (2015). The economic burden of PTSD in Northern Ireland. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(3), 191–197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folke, S., Nielsen, A. B., Andersen, S. B., Karatzias, T., & Karstoft, K. I. (2019). ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD in treatment-seeking Danish veterans: A latent profile analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), 1686806.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford, J. D., & Courtois, C. A. (2014). Complex PTSD, affect dysregulation, and borderline personality disorder. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 1(1), 1–17.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Glück, T. M., Knefel, M., Tran, U. S., & Lueger-Schuster, B. (2016). PTSD in ICD-10 and proposed ICD-11 in elderly with childhood trauma: Prevalence, factor structure, and symptom profiles. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7(1), 29700.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haslam, C., & Mallon, K. (2003). A preliminary investigation of post-traumatic stress symptoms among firefighters. Work & Stress, 17(3), 277–285.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herman-Lewis, J. (1992). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence-from domestic abuse to political terror. New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Home Office Statistical Bulletin. (2018). Fire and rescue workforce and pensions statistics: England April 2017 to March 2018. GOV.UK. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/fire-and-rescue-workforce-and-pensions-statistics-england-april-2017-to-march-2018
   Google Scholar
• Hyland, P., Ceannt, R., Daccache, F., Daher, R. A., Sleiman, J., Gilmore, B., … Vallières, F. (2018). Are posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex-PTSD distinguishable within a treatment-seeking sample of Syrian refugees living in Lebanon? Global Mental Health, 5. doi:10.1017/gmh.2018.2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., Fyvie, C., & Karatzias, T. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder and complex posttraumatic stress disorder in DSM‐5 and ICD‐11: Clinical and behavioral correlates. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 31(2), 174–180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies Guidelines Committee. (2019). ISTSS guidelines position paper on complex PTSD in adults. Oakbrook Terrace, IL: International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Jahnke, S. A., Poston, W. S. C., Haddock, C. K., & Murphy, B. (2016). Firefighting and mental health: Experiences of repeated exposure to trauma. Work, 53(4), 737–744.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jeannette, J. M., & Scoboria, A. (2008). Firefighter preferences regarding post-incident intervention. Work & Stress, 22(4), 314–326.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jo, I., Lee, S., Sung, G., Kim, M., Lee, S., Park, J., & Lee, K. (2018). Relationship between burnout and PTSD symptoms in firefighters: The moderating effects of a sense of calling to firefighting. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 91(1), 117–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jonas, S., Bebbington, P., McManus, S., Meltzer, H., Jenkins, R., Kuipers, E., … Brugha, T. (2011). Sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in England: Results from the 2007 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. Psychological Medicine, 41(4), 709–719.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karatzias, T., Murphy, P., Cloitre, M., Bisson, J. I., Roberts, N., Shevlin, M., … Hutton, P. (2019). Psychological interventions for ICD-11 Complex PTSD symptoms: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 49(11), 1761–1775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karatzias, T., Shevlin, M., Fyvie, C., Hyland, P., Efthymiadou, E., Wilson, D., … Cloitre, M. (2017). Evidence of distinct profiles of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) based on the new ICD-11 trauma questionnaire (ICD-TQ). Journal of Affective Disorders, 207, 181–187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52(12), 1048–1060.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, M. J., Jeong, Y., Choi, Y. S., Seo, A. R., Ha, Y., Seo, M., & Park, K. S. (2019). The association of the exposure to work-related traumatic events and work limitations among firefighters: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(5), 756.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim, C. S., Ong, C. N., & Phoon, W. O. (1987). Work stress of firemen as measured by heart rate and catecholamine. Journal of Human Ergology, 16(2), 209–218.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maercker, A., Hecker, T., Augsburger, M., & Kliem, S. (2018). ICD-11 prevalence rates of posttraumatic stress disorder and complex posttraumtic stress disorder in a German nationwide sample. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 206, 270–276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarlane, A. C., & Bryant, R. A. (2007). Post-traumatic stress disorder in occupational settings: Anticipating and managing the risk. Occupational Medicine, 57(6), 404–410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy, D., Shevlin, M., Pearson, E., Greenberg, N., Wessely, S., Busuttil, W., & Karatzias, T. (2020). A validation study of the International trauma Questionnaire to assesspost-traumatic stress disorder in treatment-seeking veterans. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 216(3), 132–137.
   Google Scholar
• National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2018). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (NICE Guideline NG116). London, UK: NICE.
   Google Scholar
• Nunnally, J. C. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Petrie, K., Milligan-Saville, J., Gayed, A., Deady, M., Phelps, A., Dell, L., … Harvey, S. B. (2018). Prevalence of PTSD and common mental disorders among ambulance personnel: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 53(9), 897–909.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Psarros, C., Theleritis, C., Kokras, N., Lyrakos, D., Koborozos, A., Kakabakou, O., … Bergiannaki, J. D. (2018). Personality characteristics and individual factors associated with PTSD in firefighters one month after extended wildfires. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 72(1), 17–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regel, S. (2007). Post-trauma support in the workplace: The current status and practice of critical incident stress management (CISM) and psychological debriefing (PD) within organizations in the UK. Occupational Medicine, 57(6), 411–416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shevlin, M., Hyland, P., Vallières, F., Bisson, J., Makhashvili, N., Javakhishvili, J., … Roberts, B. (2018). A comparison of DSM‐5 and ICD‐11 PTSD prevalence, comorbidity and disability: An analysis of the Ukrainian Internally Displaced Person’s Mental Health Survey. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 137(2), 138–147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shin, D. Y., Jeon, M. J., & Sakong, J. (2012). Posttraumatic stress disorder and related factors in male firefighters in a metropolitan city. Korean Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 24(4), 397–409.
   Google Scholar
• Vallières, F., Ceannt, R., Daccache, F., Abou Daher, R., Sleiman, J., Gilmore, B., … Hyland, P. (2018). ICD‐11 PTSD and complex PTSD among Syrian refugees in Lebanon: The factor structure and the clinical utility of the International Trauma Questionnaire. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 138(6), 547–557.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner, D., Heinrichs, M., & Ehlert, U. (1998). Prevalence of symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in German professional firefighters. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(12), 1727–1732.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2018). International classification of diseases for mortality and morbidity statistics (11th Revision). Retrieved from https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en
   Google Scholar