2,853
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Clinical Research Article

The structure of PTSD. Development of the Post Traumatic Symptom scale from a clinician-based perspective

La estructura del TEPT. Desarrollo de la escala de Síntomas Postraumáticos desde una perspectiva basada en el clínico

PTSD的结构:从临床医生视角开发创伤后症状量表

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, , ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon show all
Article: 2066455 | Received 28 Jul 2021, Accepted 25 Mar 2022, Published online: 25 May 2022

References

  • Alves, P. C. G., Sales, C. M. D., & Ashworth, M. (2016). “It is not just about the alcohol”: service users’ views about individualised and standardised clinical assessment in a therapeutic community for alcohol dependence. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 11(1), 1–7. doi:10.1186/s13011-016-0070-5
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.
  • Armour, C., Műllerová, J., & Elhai, J. D. (2016). A systematic literature review of PTSD's latent structure in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV to DSM-5. Clinical Psychology Review, 44, 60–74.
  • Armour, C., Tsai, J., Durham, T. A., Charak, R., Biehn, T. L., Elhai, J. D., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2015). Dimensional structure of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress symptoms: Support for a hybrid Anhedonia and Externalizing Behaviors model. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 61, 106–113.
  • Ashbaugh, A. R., Houle-Johnson, S., Herbert, C., El-Hage, W., & Brunet, A. (2016). Psychometric validation of the English and French versions of the posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). PloS one, 11(10), 1–16.
  • Benfer, N., Bardeen, J. R., Cero, I., Kramer, L. B., Whiteman, S. E., Rogers, T. A., … Weathers, F. W. (2018). Network models of posttraumatic stress symptoms across trauma types. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 58, 70–77. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2018.07.004
  • Berger, W., Coutinho, E. S. F., Figueira, I., Marques-Portella, C., Luz, M. P., Neylan, T. C., … Mendlowicz, M. V. (2012). Rescuers at risk: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis of the worldwide current prevalence and correlates of PTSD in rescue workers. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47(6), 1001–1011. doi:10.1007/s00127-011-0408-2
  • Bernstein, E. M., & Putnam, F. W. (1986). Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174(12), 727–735. doi:10.1097/00005053-198612000-00004
  • Birkeland, M. S., Greene, T., & Spiller, T. R. (2020). The network approach to posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1–15. doi:10.1080/20008198.2019.1700614
  • Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498.
  • Bonfils, K. A., Lysaker, P. H., Yanos, P. T., Siegel, A., Leonhardt, B. L., James, A. V., … Davis, L. W. (2018). Self-stigma in PTSD: Prevalence and correlates. Psychiatry Research, 265, 7–12. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.04.004
  • Borsboom, D. (2017). A network theory of mental disorders. World Psychiatry, 16(1), 5–13. doi:10.1002/wps.20375
  • Bovin, M. J., Marx, B. P., Weathers, F. W., Gallagher, M. W., Rodriguez, P., Schnurr, P. P., & Keane, T. M. (2016). Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist for diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders-fifth edition (PCL-5) in veterans. Psychological Assessment, 28(11), 1379–1391. doi:10.1037/pas0000254
  • Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. New York: Guilford publications.
  • Byllesby, B. M., Elhai, J. D., Tamburrino, M., Fine, T. H., Cohen, G., Sampson, L., … Calabrese, J. R. (2017). General distress is more important than PTSD’s cognition and mood alterations factor in accounting for PTSD and depression’s comorbidity. Journal of Affective Disorders, 211, 118–123.
  • Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18(2), 76–82. doi:10.1002/da.10113
  • Correll, L., Correll, T., & Predescu, M. (2006). USAID and Child Welfare Reform in Romania: Challenges, Successes, and Legacy. Washington, DC: USAID/DGST/E&E, JBS International, Aguirre Division. Retrieved October, 27, 2016.
  • Darves-Bornoz, J.-M., Alonso, J., de Girolamo, G., de Graaf, R., Haro, J.-M., Kovess-Masfety, V., … ESEMeD/MHEDEA 2000 Investigators (2008). Main traumatic events in Europe: PTSD in the European study of the epidemiology of mental disorders survey. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(5), 455–462. doi:10.1002/jts.20357
  • Dennis, D. (2018). Romania Under Communism: Paradox and Degeneration. London: Routledge.
  • Elhai, J. D., Biehn, T. L., Armour, C., Klopper, J. J., Frueh, B. C., & Palmieri, P. A. (2011). Evidence for a unique PTSD construct represented by PTSD's D1–D3 symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(3), 340–345.
  • Epskamp, S., & Fried, E. I. (2018). A tutorial on regularized partial correlation networks. Psychological Methods, 23(4), 617–634.
  • First, M. B. (2015). Structured clinical interview for the DSM (SCID). In R. L. Cautin & S. O. Lilienfeld (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Clinical Psychology. doi:10.1002/9781118625392.wbecp351
  • Fried, E. I., Epskamp, S., Nesse, R. M., Tuerlinckx, F., & Borsboom, D. (2016). What are ‘good’ depression symptoms? Comparing the centrality of DSM and non-DSM symptoms of depression in a network analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 189, 314–320. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.09.005
  • Friedman, M. J. (2013). Finalizing PTSD in DSM-5: Getting here from there and where to go next. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(5), 548–556. doi:10.1002/jts.21840
  • Galasiński, D., & Kozłowska, O. (2010). Questionnaires and lived experience: Strategies of coping with the quantitative frame. Qualitative Inquiry, 16(4), 271–284. doi:10.1177/1077800409354068
  • Goldsmith, R. E., Martin, C. G., & Smith, C. P. (2014). Systemic trauma. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 15(2), 117–132. doi:10.1080/15299732.2014.871666
  • Gouveia, V. V., Moura, H. M. D., Oliveira, I. C. V. D., Ribeiro, M. G. C., Rezende, A. T., & Brito, T. R. D. S. (2018). Emotional regulation questionnaire (ERQ): evidence of construct validity and internal consistency. Psico-USF, 23, 461–471.
  • Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54.
  • Greenwell, K. F. (2003). The effects of child welfare reform on levels of child abandonment and deinstitutionalization in Romania, 1987-2000 [Ph.D. Thesis].
  • Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362.
  • Hallion, L. S., Steinman, S. A., Tolin, D. F., & Diefenbach, G. J. (2018). Psychometric properties of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale (DERS) and its short forms in adults with emotional disorders. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1–12. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00539
  • Harper, L. (2005). Epigenetic inheritance and the intergenerational transfer of experience. Psychological Bulletin, 131(3), 340–360. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.3.340
  • Hogue, A., Lickfelt, S., Mylet, S., Perris, T., Thomas, S., & Young, A. (2004). An organizational assessment of children’s social service agencies in Romania.
  • International Test Commission. (2017). The ITC Guidelines for Translating and Adapting Tests (2nd ed.). [www.InTestCom.org].
  • Irimie, R. C. (2014). Everydy life under communism. The case of Romania. SEA–Practical Application of Science, 2(03), 266–283.
  • Kantor, V., Knefel, M., & Lueger-Schuster, B. (2017). Perceived barriers and facilitators of mental health service utilization in adult trauma survivors: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 52, 52–68. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2016.12.001
  • Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 617–627. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617
  • Kidron, C. A., & Kirmayer, L. J. (2019). Global mental health and idioms of distress: The paradox of culture-sensitive pathologization of distress in Cambodia. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 43(2), 211–235. doi:10.1007/s11013-018-9612-9
  • Kim, Y. J., Rooij, S. J. H., Ely, T. D., Fani, N., Ressler, K. J., Jovanovic, T., & Stevens, J. S. (2019). Association between posttraumatic stress disorder severity and amygdala habituation to fearful stimuli. Depression and Anxiety, 36(7), 647–658. doi:10.1002/da.22928
  • LeardMann, C. A., McMaster, H. S., Warner, S., Esquivel, A. P., Porter, B., Powell, T. M., … Millennium Cohort Study Team (2021). Comparison of posttraumatic stress disorder checklist instruments from diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, vs fifth edition in a large cohort of US military service members and veterans. JAMA Network Open, 4(4), e218072–e218072.
  • Lee, D. A., Scragg, P., & Turner, S. (2001). The role of shame and guilt in traumatic events: A clinical model of shame-based and guilt-based PTSD. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74(4), 451–466. doi:10.1348/000711201161109
  • Lehrner, A., & Yehuda, R. (2018). Cultural trauma and epigenetic inheritance. Development and Psychopathology, 30(5), 1763–1777. doi:10.1017/S0954579418001153
  • Liu, W. H., Wang, L. Z., Shang, H. R., Shen, Y., Li, Z., Cheung, E. F., & Chan, R. C. (2014). The influence of anhedonia on feedback negativity in major depressive disorder. Neuropsychologia, 53, 213–220.
  • Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995).  The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 335–343.
  • Lyssenko, L., Schmahl, C., Bockhacker, L., Vonderlin, R., Bohus, M., & Kleindienst, N. (2018). Dissociation in psychiatric disorders: A meta-analysis of studies using the dissociative experiences scale. American Journal of Psychiatry, 175(1), 37–46.
  • Maercker, A., & Hecker, T. (2016). Broadening perspectives on trauma and recovery: A socio-interpersonal view of PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7(1), 29303.
  • Marshall, R. E., Milligan-Saville, J., Petrie, K., Bryant, R. A., Mitchell, P. B., & Harvey, S. B. (2021). Mental health screening amongst police officers: Factors associated with under-reporting of symptoms. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), 1–8. doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03125-1
  • Mitchell, K. S., Wolf, E. J., Bovin, M. J., Lee, L. O., Green, J. D., Rosen, R. C., … Marx, B. P. (2017). Network models of DSM–5 posttraumatic stress disorder: Implications for ICD–11. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126(3), 355–366. doi:10.1037/abn0000252
  • Mokkan, R. J., & Lewis, C. (1982). A nonparametric approach to the analysis of dichotomous item responses. Applied Psychological Measurement, 6(4), 417–430.
  • Mokken, R. J. (2011). A Theory and Procedure of Scale Analysis. New York: De Gruyter Mouton.
  • Morina, N., Wicherts, J. M., Lobbrecht, J., & Priebe, S. (2014). Remission from post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of long term outcome studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(3), 249–255. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2014.03.002
  • Murray, A. L., & Johnson, W. (2013). The limitations of model fit in comparing the bi-factor versus higher-order models of human cognitive ability structure. Intelligence, 41(5), 407–422. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.06.004
  • Murray, A., McKenzie, K., Booth, T., & Murray, G. (2013). Estimating the level of functional ability of children identified as likely to have an intellectual disability. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(11), 4009–4016.
  • Norris, F. H., Stevens, S. P., Pfefferbaum, B., Wyche, K. F., & Pfefferbaum, R. L. (2008). Community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster readiness. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41(1–2), 127–150. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9156-6
  • Øktedalen, T., Hoffart, A., & Langkaas, T. F. (2015). Trauma-related shame and guilt as time-varying predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms during imagery exposure and imagery rescripting—A randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy Research, 25(5), 518–532. doi:10.1080/10503307.2014.917217
  • Petrie, K., Milligan-Saville, J., Gayed, A., Deady, M., Phelps, A., Dell, L., … Harvey, S. B. (2018). Prevalence of PTSD and common mental disorders amongst ambulance personnel: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 53(9), 897–909. doi:10.1007/s00127-018-1539-5
  • Phillips, R. D., Wilson, S. M., Sun, D., VA Mid-Atlantic MIRECC Workgroup, & Morey, R. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptom network analysis in U.S. Military veterans: Examining the impact of combat exposure. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 1–12. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00608
  • Rosapepe, J. C. (2001). Halfway home: Romania’s abandoned children ten years after the revolution. Report of the US Ambassador to Romania. Accessed 12 May, 2004.
  • Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36.
  • Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2010). A Beginner's Guide to Structural Equation Modeling. (3rd ed). New York: Psychology Press.
  • Sijtsma, K., Meijer, R. R., & van der Ark, L. A. (2011). Mokken scale analysis as time goes by: An update for scaling practitioners. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(1), 31–37.
  • Sijtsma, K., & Molenaar, I. W. (2002). Introduction to Nonparametric Item Response Theory (Vol. 5). Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Stevens, M. J. (1998). Professional psychology after communism: The case of Romania. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 29(3), 300–304. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.29.3.300
  • Trudgill, D. I. N., Gorey, K. M., & Donnelly, E. A. (2020). Prevalent posttraumatic stress disorder among emergency department personnel: Rapid systematic review. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 7(1), 1–7. doi:10.1057/s41599-020-00584-x
  • Truijens, F. L., Van Nieuwenhove, K., De Smet, M. M., Desmet, M., & Meganck, R. (2021). How questionnaires shape experienced symptoms. A qualitative case comparison study of questionnaire administration in psychotherapy research. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 19, 1–25. doi:10.1080/14780887.2021.1886383
  • Tsai, J., Harpaz-Rotem, I., Armour, C., Southwick, S. M., Krystal, J. H., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2014). Dimensional structure of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: Results from the national health and Resilience in veterans study. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 76(5), 0–0.
  • Van der Ark, L. A. (2007). Mokken scale analysis in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 20, 1–19.
  • Van der Ark, L. A. (2012). New developments in mokken scale analysis in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(5), 1–27.
  • Van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Schuengel, C. (1996). The measurement of dissociation in normal and clinical populations: Meta-analytic validation of the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES). Clinical Psychology Review, 16(5), 365–382.
  • van Voren, R. (2010). Political abuse of psychiatry—An historical overview. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 36(1), 33–35. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbp119
  • Velickovic, K., Rahm Hallberg, I., Axelsson, U., Borrebaeck, C. A. K., Rydén, L., Johnsson, P., & Månsson, J. (2020). Psychometric properties of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) in a non-clinical population in Sweden. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 18(1), 1–10. doi:10.1186/s12955-020-01383-3
  • Volkan, V. D. (2001). Transgenerational transmissions and chosen traumas: An aspect of large-group identity. Group Analysis, 34(1), 79–97. doi:10.1177/05333160122077730
  • von Stockert, S. H. H., Fried, E. I., Armour, C., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2018). Evaluating the stability of DSM-5 PTSD symptom network structure in a national sample of U.S. Military veterans. Journal of Affective Disorders, 229, 63–68. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.12.043
  • Wagnild, G. (2009). A review of the resilience scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 17(2), 105–113. doi:10.1891/1061-3749.17.2.105
  • Wagnild, G. M., & Young, H. M. (1993). Development and psychometric evaluation of the resilience scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 1(2), 165–178.
  • Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Herman, D. S., Huska, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1993, October). The PTSD checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. In Annual convention of the international society for traumatic stress studies, San Antonio, TX (Vol. 462).
  • Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2013). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). National Center for PTSD. www.ptsd.va.gov.
  • Weigold, A., Weigold, I. K., & Natera, S. N. (2018). Mean scores for self-report surveys completed using paper-and-pencil and computers: A meta-analytic test of equivalence. Computers in Human Behavior, 86, 153–164.
  • Wisco, B. E., Miller, M. W., Wolf, E. J., Kilpatrick, D., Resnick, H. S., Badour, C. L., … Friedman, M. J. (2016). The impact of proposed changes to ICD-11 on estimates of PTSD prevalence and comorbidity. Psychiatry Research, 240, 226–233. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.04.043