They know more than we do, yet we appreciate them less than they deserve: Decoding local ontologies in heritage interpretation and preservation in Southern Tanzania

References

• Adom, Dickson. 2019. “The Place and Voice of Local People, Culture, and Traditions: A Catalyst for Ecotourism Development in Rural Communities in Ghana.” Scientific African 6. doi:10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00184.
   Google Scholar
• Atalay, Sonya. 2012. Community-Based Archaeology: Research with, by, and for Indigenous and Local Communities. California: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bakker, Karel, and L. Liana Műller. 2018. “Intangible Heritage and Community Identity in Post-Apartheid South Africa.” Museum International 62 (1-2): 48–54. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0033.2010.01718.x.
   Google Scholar
• Biginagwa, Thomas, and Philbert Katto. 2020. “Archaeological Perspective on the Impact of Caravan Trade Expansion in East Africa: Emerging Alternative Histories.” Journal of Education, Humanities and Sciences 9 (3): 35–58.
   Google Scholar
• Biginagwa, Thomas, and Bertram Mapunda. 2018. “The Kilwa-Nyasa Caravan Route.” In The Swahili World, edited by S. Wynne-Jones, and A. LaViolette, 541–554. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Biginagwa, Thomas, Bertram Mapunda, and Elgidius Ichumbaki. 2021. “Multi-Directional Connectivity in Eastern and Southern Africa During the First and Early Second Millennia AD: Archaeological Evidence from Lupilo, Southern Tanzania.” Journal of African Archaeology 19 (1): 72–89. doi:10.1163/21915784-20210004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calabrese, John. 2000. “Interregional Interaction in Southern Africa: Zhizo and Leopard’s Kopje Relations in Northern South Africa, Southwestern Zimbabwe, and Eastern Botswana, AD 1000 to 1200.” African Archaeological Review 17 (4): 183–210. doi:10.1023/A:1006796925891.
   Google Scholar
• Chirikure, Shadreck. 2013. “Heritage Conservation in Africa: The Good, the Bad, and the Challenges.” South African Journal of Science 109 (1-2): 1–3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chirikure, Shadreck, Munyaradzi Manyanga, Webber Ndoro, and Gilbert Pwiti. 2010. “Unfulfilled Promises? Heritage Management and Community Participation at Some of Africa’s Cultural Heritage Sites.” International Journal of Heritage Studies 16 (1): 30–44. doi:10.1080/13527250903441739.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chirikure, Shadreck, and Gilbert Pwiti. 2008. “Community Involvement in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage Management: An Assessment from Case Studies in Southern Africa and Elsewhere.” Current Anthropology 49 (3): 467–485. doi:10.1086/588496
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chittick, Neville. 1974. Kilwa; an Islamic Trading City on the East African Coast, 2 Vols. Nairobi: British Institute in Eastern Africa.
   Google Scholar
• Colwell, Chanthaphonh. 2016. “Collaborative Archaeologies and Descendant Communities.” Annual Review of Anthropology 45: 113–127. doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-102215-095937.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies, Matt, Agathe Dupeyron, and Henrietta Moore. 2014. “Mobile Internet Technologies and the Possibilities for Public Archaeology in Africa: Marakwet, Kenya.” Antiquity Project Gallery 88: 340.https://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/davies340.
   Google Scholar
• Denbow, James, Carla Klehm, and Laure Dussubieux. 2015. “The Glass Beads of Kaitshaa: New Insights on Early Indian Ocean Trade into the Far Interior of Southern Africa.” Antiquity 89 (344): 361–377. doi:10.15184/aqy.2014.50.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eboreime, J. 2008. “Challenges of Heritage Management in Africa." In Cultural Heritage and Law Protecting Immovable Heritage in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Webber Ndoro, Albert Mumma, and George Abungu, 1–5. Rome: ICCROM.
   Google Scholar
• Feierman, Steven. 1974. The Shambaa Kingdom: A History. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hill, John F. and John P. Moffett, eds. 1955. Tanganyika: A Review of Its Resources and Their Development. Dar es Salaam: The Government of Tanganyika.
   Google Scholar
• Hodder, Ian. 1991. “Interpretive Archaeology.” American Antiquity 56 (1): 7–18. doi:10.2307/280968
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodder, Ian. 2000. Towards Reflexive Method in Archaeology: The Example at Catahyouk. MacDonald Institute Monographs and British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara. Monograph No. 28. Cambridge: MacDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
   Google Scholar
• Holtorf, Cornelius. 2010. “Archaeology and Contemporary Society.” World Archaeology 42 (3): 381–393. doi:10.1080/00438243.2010.497382.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huffman, Thomas. 2009. “Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe: The Origin and Spread of Social Complexity in Southern Africa.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28 (1): 37–54. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2008.10.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ichumbaki, Elgidius and Claudia Lubao. 2020. ''Musicalizing Heritage and Heritagizing Music for Enhancing Community Awareness of Preserving World Heritage Sites in Africa''. International Journal of Heritage Studies 26 (8): 1–18. doi:10.1080/13527258.2019.1644527.
   Google Scholar
• Ichumbaki, Elgidius, John Cooper, Philip Maligisu, Sinyati Mark, Lucy Blue, and Thomas Biginagwa. 2021. “Building a Ngalawa Double-Outrigger Logboat in Bagamoyo, Tanzania: A Craftsman at His Work." International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 50 (2): 305–336. doi:10.1080/10572414.2021.2018243.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ichumbaki, Elgidius, Marco Cherin, Fidelis Masao, and Jaccopo Moggi-Cecchi. 2019. “Local People’s Interpretations of the Hominin Footprints at Laetoli, Tanzania.” Journal of Community Archaeology and Heritage 6 (2): 122–138. doi:10.1080/20518196.2019.1594035.
   Google Scholar
• Jopela, Albino. 2011. “Traditional Custodianship: A Useful Framework for Heritage Management in Southern Africa?” Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 13 (2–3): 103–122. doi:10.1179/175355211X13179154165908.
   Google Scholar
• Jopela, Albino, and Ditlef Fredriksen. 2015. “Public Archaeology, Knowledge Meetings and Heritage Ethics in Southern Africa: An Approach from Mozambique.” World Archaeology 47 (2): 261–284. doi:10.1080/00438243.2015.1016583.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleinitz, Cornelia, and Stefania Merlo. 2014. “Towards a Collaborative Exploration of Community Heritage in Archaeological Salvage Contexts: Participatory Mapping on Mograt Island, Sudan.” 161–176. Mitteilungen der Sudanarchäologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin e.V.
   Google Scholar
• Kohl-Larsen, Ludwig. 1943. Auf den Sporen des Vormenschen. Stuttgart: Strecker und Schröder.
   Google Scholar
• Kusimba, Chaprukha. 2017. “Community Archaeology and Heritage in Coastal and Western Kenya.” Journal of Community Archaeology & Heritage 4 (3): 218–228. doi:10.1080/20518196.2017.1345365
   Google Scholar
• Kusimba, Chaprukha, and David Killick. 2003. “Iron Working on the Swahili Coast of Kenya.” In East African Archaeology: Foragers, Potters, Smiths, and Traders, edited by Chaprukha Kusimba, and Sibel Kusimba, 99–115. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leakey, Mary D. 1987. “Introduction.” In Laetoli: A Pliocene Site in Northern Tanzania, edited by Mary Leakey, and Jack Harris, 1–22. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leakey, Mary, Richard Hay, Garniss Curtis, Robert Drake, Mary Jackes, and Tim White. 1976. “Fossil Hominids from the Laetoli Beds.” Nature 262: 460–466. doi:10.1038/262460a0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maeer, Gareth. 2017. “A People-Centred Approach to Heritage: The Experience of the Heritage Lottery Fund 1994–2014.” Journal of Community Archaeology & Heritage 4 (1): 38–52. doi:10.1080/20518196.2017.1238098.
   Google Scholar
• Mapunda, Bertram. 1995. “An Archaeological View of the History and Variation of Iron Working in Southwestern Tanzania.” Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Florida.
   Google Scholar
• Mapunda, Bertram. 2004. “East African Slave Trade: Unraveling Post-Abolition Slave Coverts in the Interior of Southern Tanzania.” Utafiti 5 (1): 61–76.
   Google Scholar
• Mapunda, Bertram. 2008. “The Indian Ocean and its Hinterland During the Iron Age.” Indian Ocean Archaeology 5: 85–96.
   Google Scholar
• Mapunda, Bertram. 2010. Contemplating the Fipa Iron Technology. Kampala: Fountain Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Mapunda, Bertram, and S. Burg. 1991. “Preliminary Report on Archaeological Reconnaissance Along the Ruhuhu River Basin, Southern Tanzania.” Nyame Akuma 36: 32–40.
   Google Scholar
• Marshall, Yvonne. 2002. “What is Community Archaeology?” World Archaeology 34 (2): 211–219. doi:10.1080/0043824022000007062.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masao, Fidelis, Elgidius Ichumbaki, Marco Cherin, Angelo Barili, Giovan Boschian, David Iurino, Sofia Menconero, J. Moggi-Cecchi, and G. Manzi. 2016. “New Footprints from Laetoli (Tanzania) Provide Evidence for Marked Body Size Variation in Early Hominins.” Elife. doi:10.7554/eLife.19568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGill, Alicia. 2018. “Learning from Cultural Engagements in Community-based Heritage Scholarship.” International Journal of Heritage Studies 24 (10): 1068–1083. doi:10.1080/13527258.2018.1475413.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehari, Asmeret G., and Kokeli P. Ryano. 2016. “Maasai People and Oldupai (Olduvai) Gorge: Looking for Sustainable People-Centred Approaches and Practices.” In Community Archaeology and Heritage in Africa: Decolonizing Practice, edited by Peter R. Schmidt, and Innocent Pikirayi, 21–45. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Mire, Saada. 2008. “The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Art Site.” African Archaeological Review 25 (3-4): 153–168. doi:10.1007/s10437-008-9032-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, William, and Kevin Colls. 2020. “An Evaluation of Community-led Archaeology Projects Funded Through the Heritage Lottery Fund: Two Case Studies.” Journal of Community Archaeology & Heritage 7 (1): 17–34. doi:10.1080/20518196.2019.1655865.
   Google Scholar
• Mmahi, Okoro, and Abubakar Usman. 2020. “Hunting Is Our Heritage; We Commit No Offence: Kainji National Park Wildlife Poachers, Kaiama, Kwara State Nigeria.” Deviant Behavior 41 (12): 1510–1523. doi:10.1080/01639625.2019.1629537.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moffett, Abigail, and Shadreck Chirikure. 2016. “Exotica in Context: Reconfiguring Prestige, Power and Wealth in the Southern African Iron Age.” Journal of World Prehistory 29 (4): 337–382. doi:10.1007/s10963-016-9099-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moffett, John P. ed. 1958. Handbook of Tanganyika (2nd edn.). Dar es Salaam: The Government of Tanganyika.
   Google Scholar
• Mturi, Amin A. 1975. “Protection, Preservation and Development of Tanzania's Heritage”. Tanzania Notes and Records 76: 93–101.
   Google Scholar
• Ndlovu, Ndukuyakhe. 2009. “Access to Rock Art Sites: A Right or a Qualification?” The South African Archaeological Bulletin 64 (189): 61–68.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ndoro, Webber. 2001. Your Monuments Our Shrine: The Preservation of Great Zimbabwe. Uppsala: Uppsala University.
   Google Scholar
• Ndoro, Webber, and Herman Kiriama. 2008. “Management Mechanism in Heritage Legislation”. In Cultural Heritage and the Law: Protecting Immovable Heritage in English-Speaking Countries of Southern Africa, edited by W. Ndoro, A. Mumma, and G. Abungu. Rome: ICCROM Conservation Studies 8: 53–64.
   Google Scholar
• Njau, Jackson, and Leslie Hlusko. 2010. “Fine-turning Paleoanthrogical Reconnaissance with High-Resolution Satellite Imagery: The Discovery of New 28 Sites in Tanzania.” Journal of Human Evolution 59 (6): 280–284. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nthabiseng, Makoena. 2017. “Community Involvement and Heritage Management in Rural South Africa.” Journal of Community Archaeology & Heritage 4 (3): 189–202. doi:10.1080/20518196.2017.1357233.
   Google Scholar
• Pawlowicz, Mathew. 2013. “A Review of Ceramics from Tanzania, Malawi, and Northern Mozambique, with Implications for Swahili Archaeology.” African Archaeological Review 30 (4): 367–398. doi:10.1007/s10437-013-9146-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pawlowicz, Mathew, Jeffrey Fleisher, and Kathryn de Luna. 2020. “Capturing People on the Move: Spatial Analysis and Remote Sensing in the Bantu Mobility Project, Basanga, Zambia.” African Archaeological Review 37: 69–93. doi:10.1007/s10437-020-09363-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posnansky, Merrick. 1975. “Archaeology, Technology and Akan Civilization.” Journal of African Studies 2 (1): 24.
   Google Scholar
• Reck, Hans, and Ludwig Kohl-Larsen. 1936. “Erster Berblick über die Jungdiluvialen Tier- und Menschenfunde Dr. Kohl- Larsen’s im Nordöstlichen Teil Des Njarasa-Grabens (Ostafrika) und die Geologischen Yerhältnisse des Fundgebietes.” Geologische Rundschau 27: 401–441. doi:10.1007/BF01765919.
   Google Scholar
• Said, Chiku & Elgidius Ichumbaki. 2023. “Ours or Yours? Localizing the ‘Mixed Sites’ Concept for the Sustainable Preservation of Heritage in Africa: The Case of Chongoleani Peninsular, Tanzania.” International Journal of Cultural Policy 29 (3): 299–313. doi:10.1080/10286632.2022.2049769.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt, Peter. 2009. “Tropes, Materiality, and Ritual Embodiment of African Iron Smelting Furnaces as Human Figures.” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 16: 262–282.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, Peter. 2014a. “Rediscovering Community Archaeology in Africa and Reframing its Practice.” Journal of Community Archaeology and Heritage 1 (1): 37–55. doi:10.1179/2051819613Z.0000000006.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, Peter. 2014b. “Hardcore Ethnography: Interrogating the Intersection Disease.” Human Rights and Heritage. Heritage and Society 7 (2): 170–188. doi:10.1179/2159032X14Z.00000000033.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, Peter. 2016. “Collaborative Archaeology and Heritage in Africa: Views from the Trench and Beyond.” In Community Archaeology and Heritage in Africa: Decolonizing Practice, edited by P. R. Schmidt, and I. Pikirayi, 70–90. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, Peter. 2017a. Community-based Heritage in Africa: Unravelling Local Research and Development Initiatives. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, Peter. 2017b. “Contests Between Heritage and History in Tanganyika/Tanzania: Insights Arising from Community-Based Heritage Research.” Journal of Community Archaeology & Heritage 4 (2): 85–100. doi:10.1080/20518196.2017.1308300.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, Peter, and Innocent Pikirayi, eds. 2016. Community Archaeology and Heritage in Africa: Decolonizing Practice. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, Peter and Alice Kehoe. 2019. The Archaeology of Listening. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.
   Google Scholar
• Simakole, Brutus, Trisia Farrelly, and John Holland. 2019. “Provisions for Community Participation in Heritage Management: Case of the Zambezi Source National Monument, Zambia.” International Journal of Heritage Studies 25 (3): 225–238. doi:10.1080/13527258.2018.1481135.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, Laurajane. 2006. Uses of Heritage. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Spector, Janet D. 1993. What This Awl Means: Feminist Archaeology at a Wahpeton Dakota Village. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sutton, John. 1973. “Early Trade in Eastern Africa”. Historical Association of Tanzania Paper No. 11. Nairobi: East African Publishing House.
   Google Scholar
• Tremblay, Marie-Claude, Debbie Martin, Amelia McComber, and Ann Macaulay. 2018. “Understanding Community-based Participatory Research Through a Social Movement Framework: A Case Study of the Kahnawake Schools Diabetes Prevention Project.” BMC Public Health 18: 487. doi:10.1186/s12889-018-5412-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tully, Gemma. 2007. “Community Archaeology: General Methods and Standards of Practice.” Public Archaeology 6 (3): 155–187. doi:10.1179/175355307X243645.
   Google Scholar
• Unomah, A. C., and J. B. Webster. 1976. “East Africa: The Expansion of Commerce”. In The Cambridge History of Africa vol. 5, edited by J. E. Flint, 270–318. London: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar