Cognitive flexibility and academic performance of children in care and children from a community sample: the contrasting mediator effect of task persistence

References

• Al-Hendawi, M. (2013). Temperament, school adjustment, and academic achievement: Existing research and future directions. Educational Review, 65(2), 177–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2011.648371
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alves, A. F., Gomes, C. M. A., Martins, A., & Almeida, L. D. S. (2017). Cognitive performance and academic achievement: How do family and school converge? European Journal of Education and Psychology, 10(2), 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejeps.2017.07.001
   Google Scholar
• Ambra, F. I., Iavarone, A., Ronga, B., Chieffi, S., Carnevale, G., Iaccarino, L., Cimminella, F., Chiavazzo, A., & Garofalo, E. (2016). Qualitative patterns at Raven’s colored progressive matrices in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 28(3), 561–565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-015-0438-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ato, E., Fernández-Vilar, M. Á., & Galián, M. D. (2020). Relation between temperament and school adjustment in Spanish children: A person-centered approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00250
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Augustine, M. E., Moding, K. J., & Stifter, C. A. (2017). Predicting toddler temperamental approach-withdrawal: Contributions of early approach tendencies, parenting behavior, and contextual novelty. Journal of Research in Personality, 67, 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.05.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, J. A., Grant, S., & Morlock, L. (2008). The teacher-student relationship as a developmental context for children with internalizing or externalizing behavior problems. School Psychology Quarterly, 23(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1037/1045-3830.23.1.3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett, J., & Müller, U. (2010). The development of flexibility and abstraction in preschool children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 56(4), 455–473. https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2010.0004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berlin, M., Vinnerljung, B., Hjern, A., & Brännström, L. (2019). Educational outcomes of children from long-term foster care: Does foster parents’ educational attainment matter? Developmental Child Welfare, 1(4), 344–359. https://doi.org/10.1177/2516103219892274
   Google Scholar
• Berridge, D. (2007). Theory and explanation in child welfare: Education and looked-after children. Child and Family Social Work, 12(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2006.00446.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understand. Child Development, 78(2), 647–663. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braem, S., & Egner, T. (2018). Getting a grip on cognitive flexibility. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(6), 470–476. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721418787475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brody, L. R. (1999). Gender, emotion, and the family. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brooks, M. E., Kristensen, K., van Benthem, K. J., Magnusson, A., Berg, C. W., Nielsen, A., Skaug, H. J., Mächler, M., & Bolker, B. M. (2017). GlmmTMB balances speed and flexibility among packages for zero-inflated generalized linear mixed modeling. The R Journal, 9(2), 378–400. https://doi.org/10.32614/rj-2017-066
   Google Scholar
• Bryant, A. L., Schulenberg, J. E., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Johnston, L. D. (2003). How academic achievement, attitudes, and behaviors relate to the course of substance use during adolescence: A 6-year, multiwave national longitudinal study. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13(3), 361–397. https://doi.org/10.1111/1532-7795.1303005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryce, C. I., Goble, P., Swanson, J., Fabes, R. A., Hanish, L. D., & Martin, C. L. (2018). Kindergarten school engagement: Linking early temperament and academic achievement at the transition to school. Early Education and Development, 29(5), 780–796. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2017.1404275
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buhs, E. S., Koziol, N. A., Rudasill, K. M., & Crockett, L. J. (2018). Early temperament and middle school engagement: School social relationships as mediating processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(3), 338–354. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000224
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calvin, C. M., Batty, G. D., Der, G., Brett, C. E., Taylor, A., Pattie, A., Cukic, I., & Deary, I. J. (2017). Childhood intelligence in relation to major causes of death in 68 year follow-up: Prospective population study. BMJ (Online), 357(June), j2708. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j2708
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cameron, C., Cottone, E. A., Murrah, W. M., & Grissmer, D. W. (2016). How are motor skills linked to children’s school performance and academic achievement? Child Development Perspectives, 10(2), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12168
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron, R. J., & Das, R. K. (2019). Empowering residential carers of looked after young people: The impact of the emotional warmth model of professional childcare. British Journal of Social Work. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcz057
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cartwright, K. B., Coppage, E. A., Lane, A. B., Singleton, T., Marshall, T. R., & Bentivegna, C. (2017). Cognitive flexibility deficits in children with specific reading comprehension difficulties. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 50, 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.01.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaplin, T. M. (2015). Gender and emotion expression: A developmental contextual perspective. Emotion Review, 7(1), 14–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073914544408
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A. (2013). Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 139(4), 735–765. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030737
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Checa, P., & Abundis-Gutierrez, A. (2017). Parenting and temperament influence on school success in 9-13 year olds. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(APR), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00543
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Checa, P., & Rueda, M. R. (2011). Behavioral and brain measures of executive attention and school competence in late childhood. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36(8), 1018–1032. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2011.591857
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, J., Jiang, H., Justice, L. M., Lin, T. J., Purtell, K. M., & Ansari, A. (2020). Influences of teacher–child relationships and classroom social management on child-perceived peer social experiences during early school years. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(October), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586991
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chernego, D. I., McCall, R. B., Wanless, S. B., Groark, C. J., Vasilyeva, M. J., Palmov, O. I., Nikiforova, N. V., & Muhamedrahimov, R. J. (2018). The effect of a social–emotional intervention on the development of preterm infants in institutions. Infants & Young Children, 31(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0000000000000108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chong, S. Y., Chittleborough, C. R., Gregory, T., Lynch, J., Mittinty, M., Smithers, L. G., & Olino, T. M. (2019). The controlled direct effect of temperament at 2-3 years on cognitive and academic outcomes at 6-7 years. PLoS One, 14(6), e0204189. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204189
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, L., Gresham, F. M., & Elliott, S. N. (1985). Development and validation of a social skills assessment measure: The tross-C. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 3(4), 347–356. https://doi.org/10.1177/073428298500300407
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, E. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Colé, P., Duncan, L. G., & Blaye, A. (2014). Cognitive flexibility predicts early reading skills. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00565
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connelly, G., & Chakrabarti, M. (2008). Improving the educational experience of children and young people in public care: A Scottish perspective. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 12(4), 347–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110601156558
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotton, S. M., Kiely, P. M., Crewther, D. P., Thomson, B., Laycock, R., & Crewther, S. G. (2005). A normative and reliability study for the Raven’s coloured progressive matrices for primary school aged children from Victoria, Australia. Personality and Individual Differences, 39(3), 647–659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowell, R. A., Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2015). Childhood maltreatment and its effect on neurocognitive functioning: Timing and chronicity matter. Development and Psychopathology, 27(2), 521–533. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox, R., Skouteris, H., Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M., McCabe, M., Watson, B., Fredrickson, J., Jones, A. D., Omerogullari, S., Stanton, K., Bromfield, L., & Hardy, L. L. (2018). A qualitative exploration of coordinators’ and carers’ perceptions of the Healthy Eating, Active Living (HEAL) programme in residential care. Child Abuse Review, 27(2), 122–136. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.2453
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crozier, J. C., & Barth, R. P. (2005). Cognitive and academic functioning in maltreated children. Children & Schools, 27(4), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1093/cs/27.4.197
   Google Scholar
• del Valle, J. F., & Bravo, A. (2013). Current trends, figures and challenges in out of home child care: An international comparative analysis. Psychosocial Intervention, 22(3), 251–257. https://doi.org/10.5093/in2013a28
   Google Scholar
• Departamento de Desenvolvimento Social/Unidade de Infância e Juventude do Instituto da Segurança Social. (2021). Relatório Casa. https://www.seg-social.pt/documents/10152/13200/CASA+2020.pdf/b7f02f58-2569-4165-a5ab-bed9efdb2653
   Google Scholar
• Dollar, J. M., Perry, N. B., Calkins, S. D., Keane, S. P., & Shanahan, L. (2018). Temperamental anger and positive reactivity and the development of social skills: Implications for academic competence during preadolescence. Early Education and Development, 29(5), 747–761. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2017.1409606
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duckworth, A. L., Taxer, J. L., Eskreis-Winkler, L., Galla, B. M., & Gross, J. J. (2019). Self-control and academic achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 70(1), 373–399. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenberg, N., Losoya, S., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., Reiser, M., Murphy, B., Shepard, S. A., Poulin, R., & Padgett, S. J. (2001). Parental socialization of children’s dysregulated expression of emotion and externalizing problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 15(2), 183–205. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.15.2.183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenberg, N., Shepard, S. A., Fabes, R. A., Murphy, B. C., & Guthrie, I. K. (1998). Shyness and children’s emotionality, regulation, and coping: Contemporaneous, longitudinal, and across-context relations. Child Development, 69(3), 767–790. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.00767.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Eggum, N. D. (2010). Emotion-related self-regulation and its relation to children’s maladjustment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6(1), 495–525. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott, S. N., Gresham, F. M., Freeman, T., & McCloskey, G. (1988). Teacher and observer ratings of children’s social skills: Validation of the social skills rating scales. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 6(2), 152–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/073428298800600206
   Google Scholar
• Evans, J. S. B. T., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(3), 223–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612460685
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fajgelj, S., Bala, G., & Katić, R. (2010). Latent structure of Raven’s colored progressive matrices. Collegium Antropologicum, 34(3), 1015–1026.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Feng, X., Perceval, G. J., Feng, W., & Feng, C. (2020). High cognitive flexibility learners perform better in probabilistic rule learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00415
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forrester, D., Goodman, K., Cocker, C., Binnie, C., & Jensch, G. (2009). What is the impact of public care on children’s welfare? A review of research findings from England and wales and their policy implications. Journal of Social Policy, 38(3), 439–456. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279409003110
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galián, M. D., Ato, E., & Fernández-Vilar, M. A. (2018). Sociometric status as mediator in the relation between effortful control and achievement. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 64(3), 309–328. https://doi.org/10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.64.3.0309
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goddard G. (2000). The education of looked after children. Child & Family Social Work, 5(1), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2206.2000.00143.x
   Google Scholar
• Goldsmith, H. H., Buss, A. H., Plomin, R., Rothbart, M. K., Thomas, A., Chess, S., Hinde, R. A., & McCall, R. B. (1987). Roundtable: What is temperament? Four approaches. Child Development, 58(2), 505–529. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130527
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goschke, T. (2003). Voluntary action and cognitive control from a cognitive neuroscience perspective. In G. R. S. Maasen & W. Prinz (Eds.), Voluntary action: Brains, minds, and sociality (pp. 49–85). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gresham, F. M., Elliott, S. N., & Black, F. L. (1987a). Factor structure replication and bias investigation of the teacher rating of social skills. Journal of School Psychology, 25(1), 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-4405(87)90063-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gresham, F. M., Elliott, S. N., & Black, F. L. (1987b). Teacher-rated social skills of mainstreamed mildly handicapped and nonhandicapped children. School Psychology Review, 16(1), 78–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.1987.12085271
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gresham, F. M., Elliott, S. N., & Service, A. G. (1990). Social skills rating system manual. American Guidance Service.
   Google Scholar
• Grey, I., Mesbur, M., Lydon, H., Healy, O., & Thomas, J. (2018). An evaluation of positive behavioural support for children with challenging behaviour in community settings. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities, 22(4), 394–411. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744629517716545
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grietens, H. (2013). Is there a pan-European perspective on evidence-based practice in child welfare? A critical reflection. Journal of Children’s Services, 8(3), 161–168. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCS-04-2013-0013
   Google Scholar
• Hall, C. M., Welsh, J. A., Bierman, K. L., & Nix, R. (2016). Kindergarten social withdrawal and reading achievement: A cross-lagged path model for at-risk learners. Psychology in the Schools, 53(7), 751–759. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21939
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hancock, G. R., & Liu, M. (2012). Bootstrapping standard errors and data: Model fit statistics in structural equation modeling. In Handbook of structural equation modeling (pp. 296–306). The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Harpur, L. J., Polek, E., & van Harmelen, A. L. (2015). The role of timing of maltreatment and child intelligence in pathways to low symptoms of depression and anxiety in adolescence. Child Abuse and Neglect, 47, 24–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.05.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herman, A. M., Critchley, H. D., & Duka, T. (2018). The role of emotions and physiological arousal in modulating impulsive behaviour. Biological Psychology, 133(May 2017), 30–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.01.014
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hermenau, K., Goessmann, K., Rygaard, N. P., Landolt, M. A., & Hecker, T. (2017). Fostering child development by improving care quality: A systematic review of the effectiveness of structural interventions and caregiver trainings in institutional care. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 18(5), 544–561. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016641918
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hintsanen, M., Alatupa, S., Jokela, M., Lipsanen, J., Hintsa, T., & Leino, M. (2012). Associations of temperament traits and mathematics grades in adolescents are dependent on the rater but independent of motivation and cognitive ability. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(4), 490–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.03.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes, M. R., Yoon, S., Berg, K. A., Cage, J. L., & Perzynski, A. T. (2018). Promoting the development of resilient academic functioning in maltreated children. Child Abuse and Neglect, 75, 92–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.07.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hommel, B. (2015). Between persistence and flexibility. In A. J. Elliot (Ed.), BS:ADMS (Vol. 2). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.adms.2015.04.003
   Google Scholar
• Howie, E. K., & Pate, R. R. (2012). Physical activity and academic achievement in children: A historical perspective. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 1(3), 160–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2012.09.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, S. (2007). Progress at last? Adoption & Fostering, 31(1), 3–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/030857590703100101
   Google Scholar
• Joffe, V. L., & Black, E. (2012). Social, emotional, and behavioral functioning of secondary school students with low academic and language performance: Perspectives from students, teachers, and parents. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 43(4), 461–473. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461(2012/11-0088)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khambati, N., Mahedy, L., Heron, J., & Emond, A. (2018). Educational and emotional health outcomes in adolescence following maltreatment in early childhood: A population-based study of protective factors. Child Abuse and Neglect, 81, 343–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.05.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knorth, E. J., Harder, A. T., Zandberg, T., & Kendrick, A. J. (2008). Under one roof: A review and selective meta-analysis on the outcomes of residential child and youth care. Children and Youth Services Review, 30(2), 123–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.09.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korpershoek, H., Canrinus, E. T., Fokkens-Bruinsma, M., & de Boer, H. (2020). The relationships between school belonging and students’ motivational, social-emotional, behavioural, and academic outcomes in secondary education: A meta-analytic review. Research Papers in Education, 35(6), 641–680. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2019.1615116
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kremer, K. P., Flower, A., Huang, J., & Vaughn, M. G. (2016). Behavior problems and children’s academic achievement: A test of growth-curve models with gender and racial differences. Children and Youth Services Review, 67, 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.06.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuncel, N. R., & Hezlett, S. A. (2010). Fact and fiction in cognitive ability testing for admissions and hiring decisions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(6), 339–345. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721410389459
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamas, H. A. (2015). School performance. Propósitos y Representaciones, 3(1), 351–386. https://doi.org/10.20511/pyr2015.v3n1.74
   Google Scholar
• Lemos, G., Almeida, L., Guisande, M. A., & Primi, R. (2018). Inteligência e rendimento escolar: análise da sua relação ao longo da escolaridade. Revista Portuguesa de Educação, 21(1), 83. https://doi.org/10.21814/rpe.13920
   Google Scholar
• Lemos, M. S. D., & Meneses, H. I. (2002). A avaliação da competência social: versão portuguesa da forma para professores do SSRS. Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 18(3), 267–274. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0102-37722002000300005
   Google Scholar
• Liddle, H. A., Dakof, G. A., Rowe, C. L., Henderson, C., Greenbaum, P., Wang, W., & Alberga, L. (2018). Multidimensional family therapy as a community-based alternative to residential treatment for adolescents with substance use and co-occurring mental health disorders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 90, 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2018.04.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lima, L., Lemos, M., & Guerra, M. (2010). Adaptação do Inventário de Temperamento para Crianças em Idade Escolar- School-Age Temperament Inventory - SATI de McClowry a uma população Portuguesa. Psicologia, Saúde & Doenças, 11(1), 55–70. https://doi.org/10.15309/10psd110105
   Google Scholar
• Little, M., Kohm, A., & Thompson, R. (2005). The impact of residential placement on child development: Research and policy implications. International Journal of Social Welfare, 14(3), 200–209. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2397.2005.00360.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macdonald, K., Milne, N., Orr, R., & Pope, R. (2018). Relationships between motor proficiency and academic performance in mathematics and reading in school-aged children and adolescents: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(8), 1603. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15081603
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacNeill, L. A., & Pérez‐Edgar, K. (2020). Temperament and emotion. In S. Hupp & J. Jewell (Eds.), The encyclopedia of child and adolescent development (pp. 1–12). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119171492.wecad180
   Google Scholar
• Magalhães, S., Carneiro, L., Limpo, T., & Filipe, M. (2020). Executive functions predict literacy and mathematics achievements: The unique contribution of cognitive flexibility in grades 2, 4, and 6. Child Neuropsychology, 26(7), 934–952. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2020.1740188
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mägi, K., Kikas, E., & Soodla, P. (2018). Effortful control, task persistence, and reading skills. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 54, 42–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.11.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manrique Millones, D., Flores-Mendoza, C., & Millones Rivalles, R. (2015). Intelligence in Peru: Students’ results in raven and its relationship to SES. Intelligence, 51, 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2015.05.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markovits, H., & Doyon, C. (2011). Using analogy to improve abstract conditional reasoning in adolescents: Not as easy as it looks. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 26(3), 355–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-010-0054-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marvin, L. A., Caldarella, P., Young, E. L., & Young, K. R. (2017). Implementing strong teens for adolescent girls in residential treatment: A quasi-experimental evaluation. Residential Treatment for Children & Youth, 34(3–4), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2017.1394247
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClowry, S. G. (1995). The development of the school-age temperament inventory. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 41(3), 271–285.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClowry, S. G., Halverson, C. F., & Sanson, A. (2003). A re-examination of the validity and reliability of the school-age temperament inventory. Nursing Research, 52(3), 176–182. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006199-200305000-00007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mcdevitt, S. C., & Carey, W. B. (1978). The measurement of temperament in 3–7 year old children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 19(3), 245–253. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1978.tb00467.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muniz, M., Gomes, C. M. A., & Pasian, S. R. (2016). Factor structure of Raven’s coloured progressive matrices. Psico-USF, 21(2), 259–272. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-82712016210204
   Google Scholar
• Murrah, W. (2010). Comparing self-regulatory and early academic skills as predictors of later math, reading, and science elementary school achievement [PhD Dissertation]. University of Virginia.
   Google Scholar
• Nasvytienė, D., & Lazdauskas, T. (2021). Temperament and academic achievement in children: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 11(3), 736–757. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe11030053
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nesayan, A., Amani, M., & Gandomani, R. A. (2019). Cognitive profile of children and its relationship with academic performance. Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, 10(2), 165–174. https://doi.org/10.32598/bcn.9.10.230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osher, D., Kendziora, K., Spier, E., & Garibaldi, M. L. (2014). School influences on child and youth development. In Z. Sloboda & H. Petras (Eds.), Defining prevention science (pp. 151–169). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-7424-2_7
   Google Scholar
• Peng, P., Barnes, M., Wang, C. C., Wang, W., Li, S., Swanson, H. L., Dardick, W., & Tao, S. (2018). Meta-analysis on the relation between reading and working memory. Psychological Bulletin, 144(1), 48–76. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng, P., & Kievit, R. A. (2020). The development of academic achievement and cognitive abilities: A bidirectional perspective. Child Development Perspectives, 14(1), 15–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12352
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry, N. B., DePasquale, C. E., Fisher, P. H., & Gunnar, M. R. (2019). Comparison of institutionally reared and maltreated children on socioemotional and biological functioning. Child Maltreatment, 24(3), 235–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559518823074
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinto, V. S., & Luke, N. (2022). The role of foster carers in England and Portugal: Is it solely a parenting role? Children & Society, 36(2), 249–265. https://doi.org/10.1111/chso.12536
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pornprasertmanit, S., Miller, P., Schoemann, A., & Rosseel, Y. (2013). SemTools: Useful tools for structural equation modeling. R package version 0.4-0. http://cran.r-project.org/package=semTools
   Google Scholar
• Raven, J., Raven, J. C., & Court, J. H. (1998). Manual for Raven’s progressive matrices and vocabulary scales. Oxford Psychologists Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ropovik, I. (2014). Do executive functions predict the ability to learn problem-solving principles? Intelligence, 44(1), 64–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2014.03.002
   Google Scholar
• Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2). https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothbart, M. K. (1981). Measurement of temperament in infancy. Child Development, 52(2), 569. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129176
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothbart, M. K., & Jones, L. B. (1998). Temperament, self-regulation and education. School Psychology Review, 27(4), 479–491. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.1998.12085932
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutter, M., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., & Castle, J. (2010). Investigating the impact of early institutional deprivation on development: Background and research strategy of the English and Romanian adoptees (ERA) study. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 75(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.2010.00548.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7(4), 422–445. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.4.422
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simões, M. R. (1995). Investigações no âmbito da aferição nacional do teste das Matrizes Progressivas Coloridas de Raven (M.P.C.R.). University of Coimbra. http://hdl.handle.net/10316/946
   Google Scholar
• Sinclair, I., Parry, E., Biehal, N., Fresen, J., Kay, C., Scott, S., & Green, J. (2016). Multi-dimensional treatment foster care in England: Differential effects by level of initial antisocial behaviour. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 25(8), 843–852. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-015-0799-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skinner, E., Furrer, C., Marchand, G., & Kindermann, T. (2008). Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: Part of a larger motivational dynamic? Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(4), 765–781. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012840
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slade, E. P., & Wissow, L. S. (2007). The influence of childhood maltreatment on adolescents’ academic performance. Economics of Education Review, 26(5), 604–614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2006.10.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soares, J., Barbosa-Ducharne, M., Palacios, J., Moreira, M., Fonseca, S., & Cruz, O. (2019). Adopted children’s social competence: The interplay between past and present influences. Family Relations, 68(5), 565–579. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12391
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sousa, M., Cruz, S., & Cruz, O. (2021). The relationship of emotion regulation and negative lability with socioemotional adjustment in institutionalized and non-institutionalized children. The British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 39(1), 169–189. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12361
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spann, M. N., Mayes, L. C., Kalmar, J. H., Guiney, J., Womer, F. Y., Pittman, B., Mazure, C. M., Sinha, R., & Blumberg, H. P. (2012). Childhood abuse and neglect and cognitive flexibility in adolescents. Child Neuropsychology, 18(2), 182–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2011.595400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spinath, B., Spinath, F. M., Harlaar, N., & Plomin, R. (2006). Predicting school achievement from general cognitive ability, self-perceived ability, and intrinsic value. Intelligence, 34(4), 363–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2005.11.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stad, F. E., Van Heijningen, C. J. M., Wiedl, K. H., & Resing, W. C. M. (2018). Predicting school achievement: Differential effects of dynamic testing measures and cognitive flexibility for math performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 67, 117–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.07.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stenseng, F., Tingstad, E. B., Wichstrøm, L., & Skalicka, V. (2022). Social withdrawal and academic achievement, intertwined over years? Bidirectional effects from primary to upper secondary school. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(4), 1354–1365. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12504
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., & Bundy, D. A. (2001). The predictive value of IQ. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47(1), 1–41. https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2001.0005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strenze, T. (2007). Intelligence and socioeconomic success: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal research. Intelligence, 35(5), 401–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.09.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiina, O.-A., & Jari-Erik, N. (2000). The role of task-avoidant and task-focused behaviors in the development of reading and mathematical skills during the first school year: A cross-lagged longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(3), 478–491. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.3.478
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tõeväli, P. K., & Kikas, E. (2017). Relations among parental causal attributions and children’s math performance and task persistence. Educational Psychology, 37(3), 332–345. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2016.1225949
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tottenham, N., Hare, T. A., Quinn, B. T., McCarry, T. W., Nurse, M., Gilhooly, T., Millner, A., Galvan, A., Davidson, M. C., Eigsti, I. M., Thomas, K. M., Freed, P. J., Booma, E. S., Gunnar, M. R., Altemus, M., Aronson, J., & Casey, B. J. (2010). Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation. Developmental Science, 13(1), 46–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00852.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uttl, B. (2005). Measurement of individual differences: Lessons from memory assessment in research and clinical practice. Psychological Science, 16(6), 460–467. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01557.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valentini, M., & Galli, F. (2018). Motor activity and academic achievement the importance of movement from kindergarten to primary schools. European Journal of Research on Education and Teaching, 16(2), 183–192.
   Google Scholar
• Valiente, C., Lemery-Chalfant, K., Swanson, J., & Reiser, M. (2008). Prediction of children’s academic competence from their effortful control, relationships, and classroom participation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 67–77. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughn, M. G., Salas-Wright, C. P., Delisi, M., Shook, J. J., & Terzis, L. (2015). A typology of drug selling among young adults in the United States. Substance Use & Misuse, 50(3), 403–413. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2014.984850
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinet, L., & Zhedanov, A. (2011). A “missing” family of classical orthogonal polynomials. Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical, 44(8), 20. https://doi.org/10.1088/1751-8113/44/8/085201
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wendt, G. W., Costa, A. B., Poletto, M., Cassepp-Borges, V., Dellaglio, D. D., & Koller, S. H. (2019). Stressful events, life satisfaction, and positive and negative affect in youth at risk. Children and Youth Services Review, 102, 34–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.04.028
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whipple, S. S., & Evans, G. W. (2016). Informing policy for children at risk task persistence: A potential mediator of the income-achievement gap. Journal of Applied Research on Children, 7(1), 1–18.
   Google Scholar
• Wrulich, M., Brunner, M., Stadler, G., Schalke, D., Keller, U., & Martin, R. (2014). Forty years on: Childhood intelligence predicts health in middle adulthood. Health Psychology, 33(3), 292–296. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030727
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yen, C. J., Konold, T. R., & McDermott, P. A. (2004). Does learning behavior augment cognitive ability as an indicator of academic achievement? Journal of School Psychology, 42(2), 157–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2003.12.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Z., Mai, Y., & Yang, M. (2018). Package “WebPower”. Basic and Advanced Statistical Power Analysis Version, 72.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, X., Nurmi, J. E., Kiuru, N., Lerkkanen, M. K., & Aunola, K. (2011). A teacher-report measure of children’s task-avoidant behavior: A validation study of the behavioral strategy rating scale. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(6), 690–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.09.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou, Q., Main, A., & Wang, Y. (2010). The relations of temperamental effortful control and anger/frustration to Chinese children’s academic achievement and social adjustment: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(1), 180–196. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015908
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar