Economic and Political Factors in Infrastructure Investment: Evidence from Railroads and Roads in Africa 1960–2015

REFERENCES

• Acemoglu, Daron, Camilo García-Jimeno, and James Robinson. 2015. “State Capacity and Economic Development: A Network Approach.” American Economic Review, 105 (8): 2364–2409. doi: 10.1257/aer.20140044.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James Robinson. 2001. “The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation.” American Economic Review, 91 (5): 1369-1401. doi: 10.1257/aer.91.5.1369.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acemoglu, Daron, Suresh Naidu, Pascual Restrepo, and James Robinson. 2019. “Democracy Does Cause Growth.” Journal of Political Economy 127 (1): 47 – 100. doi:10.1086/700936.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acemoglu, Daron, and James Robinson. 2010. “Why is Africa Poor?” Economic History of Developing Regions 25 (1): 21–50. doi:10.1080/20780389.2010.505010.
   Google Scholar
• African Development Bank. 2012–15. Annual Report. Abidjan, Tunis: African Development Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Alesina, Alberto, Reza Baqir, and William Easterly. 1999. “Public Goods and Ethnic Divisions.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 114 (4): 1243–1284. doi: 10.1162/003355399556269.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alesina, Alberto, Arnaud Devleeschauwer, William Easterly, Sergio Kurlat, and Romain Wacziarg. 2003. “Fractionalization.” Journal of Economic Growth 8 (2): 155–194. doi:10.1023/A:1024471506938.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alesina, Alberto, Caterina Gennaioli, and Stefania Lovo. 2018. “Public Goods and Ethnic Diversity: Evidence from Deforestation in Indonesia.” Economica 86 (341): 32-66. doi:10.1111/ecca.12285.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alesina, Alberto, Stelios Michalopoulos, and Elias Papaioannou. 2016. “Ethnic Inequality.” Journal of Political Economy 124 (2): 428–488. doi:10.1086/685300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexeeva, Victoria, Gouthami Padam, and Cesar Queiroz. 2008. “Monitoring Road Works Contracts and Unit Costs for Enhanced Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Transport Papers TP-21, World Bank.
   Google Scholar
•  “All Aboard”. 2015. London, United Kingdom: The Economist.
   Google Scholar
• Amjadi, Azita, and Alexander Yeats. 1995. “Have Transport Costs Contributed to the Relative Decline of sub-Saharan African Exports? Some Preliminary Empirical Evidence.” Policy Research Working Paper Series 1559, The World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Atkin, David, and Dave Donaldson. 2015. “Who’s Getting Globalized? The Size and Implications of Intra-national Trade Costs.” NBER Working Papers 21439, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Baltagi, Badi. 2008. Econometric Analysis of Panel Data. Hoboken: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Barro, Robert. 1996. “Democracy and Growth.” Journal of Economic Growth 1 (1): 1–27. doi:10.1007/BF0016334.
   Google Scholar
• Berg, Claudia, Brian Blankespoor, and Harris Selod. 2016. “Roads and Rural Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Policy Research Working Paper Series 7729, The World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Berg, Claudia, Uwe Deichmann, Yishen Liu, and Harris Selod. 2017. “Transport Policies and Development.”  The Journal of Development Studies 0 (0): 1–16. doi:10.1080/00220388.2016.1199857.
   Google Scholar
• Besley, Timothy, and Torsten Persson. 2009. “The Origins of State Capacity: Property Rights, Taxation, and Politics.” American Economic Review 99 (4): 1218–44. doi: 10.3386/w13028.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bignon, Vincent, Rui Esteves, and Alfonso Herranz-Loncán. 2015. “Big push or big grab? Railways, government activism, and export growth in Latin America, 1865-1913.” Economic History Review 68 (4): 1277–1305. doi:10.1111/ehr.12094.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bockstette, Valerie, Areendam Chanda, and Louis Putterman. 2002. “States and Markets: The Advantage of an Early Start.” Journal of Economic Growth. 7 (4): 347–69. doi:10.1023/A:1020827801137.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogart, Dan. 2010. “A Global Perspective on Railway Inefficiency and the Rise of State Ownership, 1880-1912.” Explorations in Economic History. 47 (2): 158–178. doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2009.09.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogart, Dan, and Latika Chaudhary. 2013. “Engines of Growth: The Productivity Advance of Indian Railways, 1874-1912.” The Journal of Economic History. 73(2): 339-370 doi:10.1017/S0022050713000296.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogart, Dan, and Latika Chaudhary. 2015. “Off the Rails: Is State Ownership Bad for Productivity?” Journal of Comparative Economics. 43(4): 997–1013. doi: 10.1016/j.jce.2015.03.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogart, Dan, Latika Chaudhary, and Alfonso Herranz-Loncan. 2015. “The Growth Contribution of Colonial Indian Railways in Comparative Perspective.” CEH Discussion Papers 033, Centre for Economic History, Research School of Economics, Australian National University.
   Google Scholar
• Bolt, Jutta and Jan Luiten van Zanden. 2014. “The Maddison Project: Collaborative Research on Historical National Accounts.” Economic History Review. 67(3): 627–651. doi: 10.1111/1468-0289.12032.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borcan, Oana, Ola Olsson, and Louis Putterman. 2014. “State History and Economic Development: Evidence from Six Millennia,” Working Papers in Economics 602, University of Gothenburg, Department of Economics.
   Google Scholar
• Boshoff, Willem, and Johan Fourie. 2017. “When Did South African Markets Integrate into the Global Economy?” Studies in Economics and Econometrics. 41 (1): 19–32.
   Google Scholar
• Buonanno, Paolo, Ruben Durante, Giovanni Prarolo, and Paolo Vanin. 2015. “Poor Institutions, Rich Mines: Resource Curse in the Origins of the Sicilian Mafia.” The Economic Journal. 125 (586): F175–F202. doi: 10.1111/ecoj.12236.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgess, Robin, Rémi Jedwab, Edward Miguel, Ameet Morjaria, and Gerard Padró i Miquel. 2015. “The Value of Democracy: Evidence from Road Building in Kenya.” American Economic Review. 105 (6): 1817–1851. doi: 10.1257/aer.20131031.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buys, Piet, Uwe Deichmann, and David Wheeler. 2010. “Road Network Upgrading and Overland Trade Expansion in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of African Economies. 19 (3): 399–432. doi: 10.1093/jae/ejq006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calderón, César, and Luis Servén. 2010. “Infrastructure and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of African Economies. 19 (1): 13-87. doi: 10.1093/jae/ejp022.
   Google Scholar
• Calderón, César, and Luis Servén 2014. “Infrastructure, Growth, and Inequality: An Overview.” Policy Research Working Paper Series 7034, The World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Campante, Filipe, and Quoc-Anh Do. 2014. “Isolated Capital Cities, Accountability, and Corruption: Evidence from US States.” American Economic Review. 104 (8): 2456–81. doi: 10.1257/aer.104.8.2456.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campante, Filipe, Quoc-Anh Do, and Bernardo Guimaraes. 2013. “Isolated Capital Cities and Misgovernance: Theory and Evidence.” NBER Working Papers 19028, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Canning, David. 1998. “A Database of World Stocks of Infrastructure, 1950-95.” The World Bank Economic Review 12 (3): 529–547. doi: 10.1093/wber/12.3.529.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canning, David. 1999. “Infrastructure’s Contribution to Aggregate Output.” Policy Research Working Paper Series 2246, The World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Canning, David, and Esra Bennathan. 2000. “The Social Rate of Return on Infrastructure Investments.” Policy Research Working Paper Series 2390, The World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Canning, David, and Mansour Farahani. 2007. “A Database of World Stocks of Infrastructure: Update 1950- 2005.” Mimeo, Harvard School of Public Health.
   Google Scholar
• Canning, David, and Peter Pedroni. 2008. “Infrastructure, Long-run Economic Growth, and Causality Tests for Cointegrated Panels.” The Manchester School 76 (5): 504–527. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9957.2008.01073.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center for Systemic Peace. 2015a. Major Episodes of Political Violence, 1946-2015. Vienna, Virginia: Center for Systemic Peace.
   Google Scholar
• Center for Systemic Peace. 2015b. Polity IV Annual Time-Series, 1800-2015. Vienna, Virginia: Center for Systemic Peace.
   Google Scholar
• Chaléard, Jean-Louis, Chantal Chanson-Jabeur, and Chantal Béranger. 2006. Le Chemin de Fer en Afrique. Paris: Karthala Editions.
   Google Scholar
• Chanda, Areendam, and Louis Putterman. 2007. “Early Starts, Reversals and Catch-up in the Process of Economic Development.” Scandinavian Journal of Economics 109(2): 387–413. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9442.2007.00497.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaves, Isaias, Stanley Engerman, and James Robinson. 2014. “Reinventing the Wheel: The Economic Benefits of Wheeled Transportation in Early Colonial British West Africa.” In Africa’s Development in Historical Perspective, edited by Emmanuel Akyeampong, Robert Bates, Nathan Nunn, and James Robinson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Collier, Paul, Martina Kirchberger, and Måns Söderbom. 2015. “The Cost of Road Infrastructure in Low and Middle Income Countries.” The World Bank Economic Review 30 (3): 522–548. doi: 10.1093/wber/lhv037.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Communaute Economique Europeenne. 1966. “Possibilités d’Industrialisation des Etats Africains et Malgache Associés.” Technical report, Communaute Economique Europeenne.
   Google Scholar
• Dierks, Klaus. 2001. “Namibian Roads in History: From the 13th Century till Today.” Mimeo, Goethe- Universität Frankfurt/Main.
   Google Scholar
• Donaldson, Dave. 2018. “Railroads of the Raj: Estimating the Impact of Transportation Infrastructure.” American Economic Review 108 (4-5): 899-934. doi: 10.1257/aer.20101199.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Easterly, William, and Ross Levine. 1997. “Africa’s Growth Tragedy: Policies and Ethnic Divisions.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 112 (4): 1203–1250. doi: 10.1162/003355300555466.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekundare, Olufemi. 1973. An Economic History of Nigeria 1860-1960. New York: Holmes & Meier.
   Google Scholar
• Fedderke, Johannes, Peter Perkins, and John Luiz. 2006. “Infrastructural Investment in Long-Run Economic Growth: South Africa 1875-2001.” World Development 34 (6): 1037–1059. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.11.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fenske, James. 2013. “Does Land Abundance Explain African Institutions?” The Economic Journal 123 (573): 1363–1390. doi: 10.1111/ecoj.12034.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fenske, James, and Igor Zurimendi. 2015. “Oil and Ethnic Inequality in Nigeria.” CSAE Working Paper Series 2015-02, Centre for the Study of African Economies, University of Oxford.
   Google Scholar
• Fourie, Johan. 2008. “A Note on Infrastructure Quality in South Africa.” Development Southern Africa 25 (4): 481-494. doi: 10.1080/03768350802318639.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fourie, Johan, and Dieter von Fintel. 2014. “Settler Skills and Colonial Development: the Huguenot Wine- Makers in Eighteenth-Century Dutch South Africa.” The Economic History Review 67 (4): 932-963. doi: 10.1111/1468-0289.12033.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gennaioli, Nicola, and Ilia Rainer. 2007. “The Modern Impact of Pre-Colonial Centralization in Africa.” Journal of Economic Growth 12 (3): 185-234. doi: 10.1007/s10887-007-9017-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gewald, Jan-Bart, Sabine Luning, and Klaas van Walraven, eds. 2009. The Speed of Change: Motor Vehicles and People in Africa, 1890-2000. In Afrika-Studiecentrum Series, No. 13. Leiden: Brill.
   Google Scholar
• Gollin, Doug, Rémi Jedwab, and Dietrich Vollrath. 2016. “Urbanization with and without Industrialization.” Journal of Economic Growth 21 (1): 35–70. doi: 10.1007/s10887-015-9121-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Government of China. 2016. Transportation Overview. Beijing: Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic.
   Google Scholar
• Government of India. 2016. Basic Road Statistics of India 2013-14 and 2014-15. Delhi: Ministry of Road Transport & Highways.
   Google Scholar
• Gutman, Jeffrey, Amadou Sy, and Soumya Chattopadhya. 2015. Financing African Infrastructure: Can the World Deliver? Washington: The Brookings Institution.
   Google Scholar
• Gwilliam, Ken. 2011. Africa’s Transport Infrastructure: Mainstreaming Maintenance and Management. Washington: The World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Habyarimana, James, Macartan Humphreys, Daniel Posner, and Jeremy Weinstein. 2007. “Why Does Ethnic Diversity Undermine Public Goods Provision? An Experimental Approach.” American Political Science Review 101 (4): 709–725. doi: 10.1017/S0003055407070499.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris, Richard, and Elias Tzavalis. 1999. “Inference for Unit Roots in Dynamic Panels where the Time Dimension is Fixed.” Journal of Econometrics 91 (2): 201-226. doi: 10.1016/S0304-4076(98)00076-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison, David. 1995. “Development of Tourism in Swaziland.” Annals of Tourism Research, 22 (1): 135-136. doi: 10.1016/0160-7383(94)00051-S.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Havenga, Jan and Wessel Pienaar. 2012. “Quantifying Freight Transport Volumes in Developing Regions: Lessons Learnt from South Africa’s Experience during the 20th Century.” Economic History of Developing Regions 27 (2): 87-113. doi: /10.1080/20780389.2012.745666.
   Google Scholar
• Heap, Simon. 1990. “The Development of Motor Transport in the Gold Coast, 1900-1939.” Journal of Transport History 11 (2): 19-37.
   Google Scholar
• Herbst, Jeffrey. 2000. States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Herranz-Loncán, Alfonso. 2011. “The Role of Railways In Export-led Growth: The Case of Uruguay, 1870-1913.” Economic History of Developing Regions 26 (2): 1-32. doi: 10.1080/20780389.2011.625238.
   Google Scholar
• Herranz-Loncán, Alfonso. 2014. “Transport Technology and Economic Expansion: The Growth Contribution of Railways In Latin America Before 1914.” Revista de Historia Economica 32 (1): 13-45. doi: 10.1017/S0212610913000177Publi.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herranz-Loncán, Alfonso, and Johan Fourie. 2018. “For the Public Benefit”? Railways in the British Cape Colony.” European Review of Economic History 22 (1): 73-100. doi: 10.1093/ereh/hex010
   Google Scholar
• Jedwab, Rémi. 2013. “Urbanization without Industrialization: Evidence from Consumption Cities in Africa.” Mimeo, The George Washington University.
   Google Scholar
• Jedwab, Remi, Edward Kerby, and Alexander Moradi. 2017. “History, Path Dependence and Development: Evidence from Colonial Railways, Settlers and Cities in Kenya.” The Economic Journal 127 (603): 1467-1494. doi: 10.1111/ecoj.12347.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jedwab, Rémi, and Alexander Moradi. 2016. “The Permanent Economic Effects of Transportation Revolutions in Poor Countries: Evidence from Africa.” Review of Economics and Statistics 98 (2): 268-284. doi: 10.1162/REST_a_00540.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jedwab, Rémi and Adam Storeygard. 2017. “The Heterogeneous Effects of Transportation Investments: Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa 1960-2010.” Mimeo, George Washington University.
   Google Scholar
• Kerby, Edward. 2012. “Financing the Foe: British Capital and the Construction of Railways in Southern Africa.” Mimeo, London School of Economics.
   Google Scholar
• La Porta, Rafael, Florencio Lopez-de Silanes, and Andrei Shleifer. 2008. “The Economic Consequences of Legal Origins.” Journal of Economic Literature 46 (2): 285-332. doi: 10.1257/jel.46.2.285.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Limaõ, Nuno, and Anthony J. Venables. 2001. “Infrastructure, Geographical Disadvantage, Transport Costs, and Trade.” The World Bank Economic Review 15 (3): 451–479. doi: 10.1093/wber/15.3.451.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lled, Victor, Irene Yackovlev, and Lucie Gadenne. 2011. “A Tale of Cyclicality, Aid Flows and Debt: Government Spending in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of African Economies 20 (5): 823-849. doi: 10.1093/jae/ejr022.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maasdorp, Gavin. 1987. “Railway development in Swaziland 1964-1986.” South African Journal of Economic History 2 (1): 92-115. doi: 10.1080/10113436.1987.10417139.
   Google Scholar
• Maddison, Angus. 2008. Maddison Project Database. Accessed 01 August 2017. http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/maddisonproject/orihome.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Manning, Patrick. 2015. “African Population, 1650-2000: Comparisons and Implications of New Estimates.” In Africa’s Development in Historical Perspective, edited by Emmanuel Akyeampong, Robert Bates, Nathan Nunn, and James Robinson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mehlum, Halvor, Karl Moene, and Ragnar Torvik. 2006. “Institutions and the Resource Curse.” The Economic Journal 116 (508): 1–20. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0297.2006.01045.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michalopoulos, Stelios, and Elias Papaioannou. 2013. “Pre-Colonial Ethnic Institutions and Contemporary African Development.” Econometrica 81 (1): 113-152. doi: https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA9613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michalopoulos, Stelios, and Elias Papaioannou. 2014. “National Institutions and Subnational Development in Africa.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 129 (1): 151-213. doi: 10.1093/qje/qjt029.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michalopoulos, Stelios, and Elias Papaioannou 2015. “On the Ethnic Origins of African Development: Traditional Chiefs and Pre-colonial Political Centralization.” Academy of Management Perspectives 29 (1): 32-71. doi: 10.5465/amp.2012.0162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michalopoulos, Stelios, and Elias Papaioannou 2016. “The Long-Run Effects of the Scramble for Africa.” American Economic Review 106 (7): 1802-1848. doi: 10.1257/aer.20131311.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miguel, Edward, and Mary Kay Gugerty. 2005. “Ethnic Diversity, Social Sanctions, and Public Goods in Kenya.” Journal of Public Economics 89 (11-12): 2325–2368. doi: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2004.09.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, Brian. 1995. International Historical Statistics: Africa, Asia, and Oceania, 1750-1988. New York: Stockton Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mlambo, Alois. 1994. “From Dirt Tracks to Modern Highways: Towards a History of Roads and Road Transportation in Colonial Zimbabwe, 1890 to World War II.” Zambezia 21 (2): 147-166.
   Google Scholar
• Mpeta, Bokang, Johan Fourie, and Kris Inwood. 2018. “Black living standards in South Africa before Democracy: New Evidence from Height.” South African Journal of Science 114 (1/2). doi: 10.17159/sajs.2018/20170052.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, Andrew, and Uwe Deichmann. 2004. “African Population Database Documentation.” Technical report, United Nations Environment Programme, and CIESIN at Columbia University.
   Google Scholar
• Nunn, Nathan. 2008. “The Long-term Effects of Africa’s Slave Trades.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 123 (1): 139-176. doi: 10.1162/qjec.2008.123.1.139.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nunn, Nathan, and Diego Puga. 2012. “Ruggedness: The Blessing of Bad Geography in Africa.” The Review of Economics and Statistics 94 (1): 20-36. doi: 10.1162/REST_a_00161.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nunn, Nathan, and Leonard Wantchekon. 2011. “The Slave Trade and the Origins of Mistrust in Africa.” American Economic Review 101 (7): 3221-3252. doi: 10.1257/aer.101.7.3221.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Connor, Anthony. 1971. The Geography of Tropical African Development. Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• O’Connor, Anthony. 1978. The Geography of Tropical African Development: 2nd Edition. Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Ogonda, Richard. 1992. Transport and Communications in the Colonial Economy. In An Economic History of Kenya, edited by William Ochieng and Robert Maxon. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Papaioannou, Elias, and Gregorios Siourounis. 2008. “Democratisation and Growth.” The Economic Journal 118 (532): 1520–1551. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0297.2008.02189.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedersen, Poul Ove. 2001. “The Freight Transport and Logistical System of Ghana.” Working Paper 01.2, Centre for Development Research in Copenhagen.
   Google Scholar
• Perkins, Peter. 2003. “An Analysis of Economic Infrastructure Investment in South Africa.” Ph.D. diss., University of the Witwatersrand.
   Google Scholar
• Perkins, Peter, Johann Fedderke, and John Luiz. 2005. “An Analysis of Economic Infrastructure Investment in South Africa.” South African Journal of Economics 73 (2): 211-228.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson, Torsten, and Guido Tabellini. 2006. “Democracy and Development: The Devil in the Details.” American Economic Review 96 (2): 319-324. doi: 10.1257/000282806777212396.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Putterman, Louis, and David Weil. 2010. “Post-1500 Population Flows and The Long-Run Determinants of Economic Growth and Inequality.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 125 (4): 1627-1682. doi: 10.1162/qjec.2010.125.4.1627.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radelet, Steven, and Jeffrey Sachs. 1998. “Shipping Costs, Manufactured Exports, and Economic Growth.” Mimeo, The World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, James, Ragnar Torvik, and Thierry Verdier. 2006. “Political Foundations of the Resource Curse.” Journal of Development Economics 79 (2): 447-468. doi: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.01.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodrigue, Jean-Paul. 2017. The Geography of Transport Systems. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Sala-i-Martin, Xavier. 1997. “I Just Ran Two Million Regressions.” American Economic Review 87 (2): 178-183.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soja, Edward 1968. The Geography of Modernization in Kenya: A Spatial Analysis of Social, Economic, and Political Change. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Storeygard, Adam. 2016. “Farther on Down the Road: Transport Costs, Trade and Urban Growth in sub- Saharan Africa.” Review of Economic Studies 83 (3): 1263-1295. doi: 10.1093/restud/rdw020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tadei, Federico. 2018. “The Long-Term Effects of Extractive Institutions: Evidence from Trade Policies in Colonial French Africa.” Economic History of Developing Regions 33 (3): 183-208. doi: 10.1080/20780389.2018.1527685.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang, John. 2014. “Railroad Expansion and Industrialization: Evidence from Meiji Japan.” The Journal of Economic History 74 (03): 863–886. doi: 10.1017/S002205071400062X.
   Google Scholar
• Thornton, John. 2008. “Explaining Procyclical Fiscal Policy in African Countries.” Journal of African Economies 17 (3): 451. doi: 10.1093/jae/ejm029.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Um, Paul Noumba, Stephane Straub, and Charles Vellutini. 2009. “Infrastructure and Economic Growth in the Middle East and North Africa.” Policy Research Working Paper Series 5105, The World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations. 2015a. World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision. New York: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations. 2015b. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision. New York: United Nations.
   Google Scholar
• Vicente, Pedro. 2010 “Does Oil Corrupt? Evidence from a Natural Experiment in West Africa.” Journal of Development Economics 92 (1): 28-38. doi: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2009.01.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilburn, Kenneth. 1982. “The Climax of Railway Competition in South Africa, 1886-1899.” PHD diss., University of Oxford.
   Google Scholar
• Wilburn, Kenneth. 1988. “The Nature of the Rothschild Loan: International Capital and South African Railway Diplomacy, Politics, and Construction 1891-1892.” South African Journal of Economic History 3 (1): 4-19. doi: 10.1080/10113436.1988.10417140.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2006. World Development Indicators. Washington: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2010. Africa’s infrastructure: a Time for Transformation. Washington: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2015a. World Development Indicators. Washington: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2015b. World Government Indicators. Washington: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2016a. Annual Report. Washington: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2016b. World Development Indicators. Washington: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Wrigley, Christopher. 1986. “Aspects of Economic History.” In The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7, edited by Andrew Roberts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar