Riders on the storm: the politics of disruption in European member states during the COVID-19 pandemic

References

• Alesina, Alberto, and Francesco Giavazzi. 2006. The Future of Europe: Reform or Decline. Cambridge: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Amato, Giuliano. 2015. “The Constitution.” In The Oxford Handbook of Italian Politics, edited by Erik Jones and Gianfranco Pasquino, 71–81. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Anghel, Veronica. 2018. “‘Why Can’t We Be Friends?’ The Coalition Potential of Presidents in Semi-Presidential Republics—Insights from Romania.’.” East European Politics and Societies 32 (1): 101–118. doi:10.1177/0888325417722829.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anghel, Veronica. 2020. “Together or Apart? The European Union’s East–West Divide’.” Survival 62 (3): 179–202. doi:10.1080/00396338.2020.1763621.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anghel, Veronica. 2023. “Minority Governments in Romania.” In Minority Governments in Comparative Perspective, edited by Bonnie Field and Shane Martin. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Anghel, Veronica, and Erik Jones. 2022. “Failing Forward in Eastern Enlargement: Problem Solving Through Problem Making.” Journal of European Public Policy 29 (7): 1092–1111.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anghel, Veronica, and Julia Schulte-Cloos. 2022. “COVID-19 Related Anxieties Do Not Decrease Support for Liberal Democracy.” European Journal of Political Research.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandelow, Nils C., Patrick Hassenteufel, and Johanna Hornung. 2021. “Patterns of Democracy Matter in the COVID-19 Crisis.” International Review of Public Policy 3: 1. doi:10.4000/irpp.1788.
   Google Scholar
• Blokker, Paul. 2014. New Democracies in Crisis? A Comparative Constitutional Study of the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bolleyer, Nicole, and Orsolya Salát. 2021. “Parliaments in Times of Crisis: COVID-19, Populism, and Executive Dominance.” West European Politics 44 (5-6): 1103–1128. doi:10.1080/01402382.2021.1930733.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brils, Tobias, Jasper Muis, and Teodora Gaidytė. 2021. “Dissecting Electoral Support for the Far Right: A Comparison Between Mature and Post-Communist European Democracies.” Government and Opposition, 1–28. doi:10.1017/gov.2020.17.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bull, Martin. 2021. “The Italian Government Response to COVID-19 and the Making of a Prime Minister.” Contemporary Italian Politics 13 (2): 149–165. doi:10.1080/23248823.2021.1914453.
   Google Scholar
• Bustikova, Lenka, and Petra Guasti. 2017. “The Illiberal Turn or Swerve in Central Europe?.” Politics and Governance 5 (4): 166–176. doi:10.17645/pag.v5i4.1156.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cachia, Jean Claude. 2021. “The Europeanization of the COVID-19 Pandemic Response and the EU’s Solidarity with Italy.’.” Contemporary Italian Politics 13 (1): 81–104. doi:10.1080/23248823.2021.1871808.
   Google Scholar
• Ceccobelli, Diego, and Cristian Vaccari. 2021. “A Virus in the Hybrid Media System: How the Conte Government Communicated the Coronavirus Crisis.” Contemporary Italian Politics 13 (2): 259–274. doi:10.1080/23248823.2021.1906529.
   Google Scholar
• Chiaramonte, Alessandro, Lorenzo De Sio, and Vincenzo Emanuele. 2020. “Salvini’s Success and the Collapse of the Five Star Movement: The European Elections of 2019.” Contemporary Italian Politics 12 (2): 140–154. doi:10.1080/23248823.2020.1743475.
   Google Scholar
• Chiru, Mihail, and Natasha Wunsch. 2021. “Democratic Backsliding as a Catalyst for Polity- Based Contestation? Populist Radical Right Cooperation in the European Parliament.” Journal of European Public Policy. doi:10.1080/13501763.2021.1984546.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coman, Ramona, and Clara Volintiru. 2021. “Anti-liberal Ideas and Institutional Change in Central and Eastern Europe.” European Politics and Society. doi:10.1080/23745118.2021.1956236.
   Google Scholar
• Constitutional Court. 2018. Decision no. 358 of May 30, 2018'. https://legislatie.just.ro/Public/DetaliiDocumentAfis/201394
   Google Scholar
• Constitutional Court. 2020. Decision no. 85 of February 24, 2020. https://legislatie.just.ro/Public/DetaliiDocumentAfis/201394
   Google Scholar
• Coppedge, Michael, John Gerring, Carl Henrik Knutsen, Staffan I. Lindberg, Jan Teorell, Kyle L. Marquardt, Juraj Medzihorsky et al. 2020. ‘V-Dem Dataset 2020.’ Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project. doi:10.23696/VDEMDS20.
   Google Scholar
• Capano, Gilberto. 2020. “Policy design and state capacity in the COVID-19 emergency in Italy: if you are not prepared for the (un)expected, you can be only what you already are.” Policy and Society 39 (3): 326–344. doi:10.1080/14494035.2020.1783790.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotta, Maurizio. 2020. “The Anti-Establishment Parties at the Helm: From Great Hopes to Failure and a Limited Resurrection.” Contemporary Italian Politics 12 (2): 126–139. doi:10.1080/23248823.2020.1744894.
   Google Scholar
• Della Porta, Donatella, and Alberto Vannucci. 2007. “Corruption and Anti-Corruption: The Political Defeat of ‘Clean Hands’ in Italy.” West European Politics 30 (4): 830–853. doi:10.1080/01402380701500322.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desvars-Larrive, Amélie, Elma Dervic, Nils Haug, Marco Di Maggio, and Manuela Perrone. 2019. “The Political Culture of the Movimento Cinque Stelle, from Foundation to the Reins of Government.” Journal of Modern Italian Studies 24 (3): 468–482. doi:10.1080/1354571X.2019.1605729.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Maggio, Marco, and Manuela Perrone. 2019. “The political culture of the Movimento Cinque Stelle, from foundation to the reins of government.” Journal of Modern Italian Studies 24 (3): 468–482. doi:10.1080/1354571X.2019.1605729.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donovan, Mark, and Mark Gilbert. 2015. “Silvio Berlusconi and Romano Prodi.” In The Oxford Handbook of Italian Politics, edited by Erik Jones and Gianfranco Pasquino, 394–406. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Economist Intelligence Unit. 2020. The Democracy Index. https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2021/02/02/global-democracy-has-a-very-bad-year
   Google Scholar
• Ellinas, Antonis A, and Iasonas Lamprianou. November 2017. “How Far Right Local Party Organizations Develop: The Organizational Buildup of the Greek Golden Dawn.” Party Politics 23 (6): 804–820. doi:10.1177/1354068816641337.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engler, Sarah, Palmo Brunner, Romane Loviat, Tarik Abou-Chadi, Lucas Leeemann, Andreas Glaser, and Daniel Kübler. 2021. “Democracy in Times of the Pandemic: Explaining the Variation of COVID-19 Policies Across European Democracies.” West European Politics 44 (5-6): 1077–1102.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enyedi, Zsolt. 2020. “Right-Wing Authoritarian Innovations in Central and Eastern Europe.” East European Politics 36 (3): 363–377. doi:10.1080/21599165.2020.1787162.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Anti-Fraud Office. 2021. “Annual Report.” https://anti-fraud.ec.europa.eu/about-us/reports/annual-olaf-reports_en
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2021a. “Eurobarometer.” https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/screen/home
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2021b. “Cooperation and Verification Mechanism – Progress Report Romania COM(2021) 370.” https://ec.europa.eu/info/files/progress-report-romania-com-2021-370-final_en
   Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2021c. “The Rule of Law Report.” https://ec.europa.eu/info/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/upholding-rule-law/rule-law/rule-law-mechanism/2021-rule-law-report_en
   Google Scholar
• European Court of Human Rights. 2020. “Press Release issued by the Registrar of the Court: ‘Romania Violated the Rights of Anti-corruption Directorate Chief Prosecutor when Dismissing her Before the End of her Mandate’.” https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/app/conversion/pdf/?library=ECHR&id=003-6688430-8898922&filename=Judgment+K%F6vesi+v.+Romania+-+treatment+of+former+anti-corruption+directorate+chief+violated+the+Convention+.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Garzia, Diego, and Johannes Karremans. 2021. “Super Mario 2: Comparing the Technocrat-Led Monti and Draghi Governments in Italy.” Contemporary Italian Politics 13 (1): 105–115. doi: 10.1080/23248823.2021.1903175.
   Google Scholar
• Gaskell, Jen, Gerry Stoker, Will Jennings, and Daniel Devine. 2020. “Covid-19 and the Blunders of our Governments: Long-run System Failings Aggravated by Political Choices.” The Political Quarterly 91: 523–533. doi:10.1111/1467-923X.12894.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gherghina, Sergiu, and Sergiu Miscoiu. 2013. “The Failure of Cohabitation: Explaining the 2007 and 2012 Institutional Crises in Romania.” East European Politics and Societies 27 (4): 668–684. doi:10.1177/0888325413485621.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gherghina, Sergiu, and Clara Volintiru. 2017. “A new Model of Clientelism: Political Parties, Public Resources, and Private Contributors.” European Political Science Review 9 (1): 115–137. doi:10.1017/S1755773915000326.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giannetti, Daniela, Luca Pinto, and Carolina Plescia. 2020. “The First Conte Government: ‘Government of Change’ or Business as Usual?” Contemporary Italian Politics 12 (2): 182–199. doi:10.1080/23248823.2020.1745512.
   Google Scholar
• Ginsborg, Paul. 2003. Italy and Its Discontents, 1980-2001. London: Penguin.
   Google Scholar
• Goetz, Klaus H., and Dorte Sindbjerg Martinsen. 2021. “COVID-19: A Dual Challenge to European Liberal Democracy.” West European Politics 44 (5-6): 1003–1024. doi:10.1080/01402382.2021.1930463.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grzymala-Busse, Anna. 2017. “Global Populisms and Their Impact.” Slavic Review 76 (S1): S3–S8. doi:10.1017/slr.2017.152.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guasti, Petra. 2020. “The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Central and Eastern Europe: The Rise of Autocracy and Democratic Resilience.” Democratic Theory 7 (2): 47–60. doi:10.3167/dt.2020.070207.
   Google Scholar
• Hajnal, György, Iga Jeziorska, and Éva Margit Kovács. 2021. “Understanding Drivers of Illiberal Entrenchment at Critical Junctures: Institutional Responses to COVID-19 in Hungary and Poland.” International Review of Administrative Sciences 87 (3): 612–630. doi:10.1177/0020852320981138.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartman, Todd K., Thomas V. A. Stocks, Ryan McKay, Jilly Gibson-Miller, Liat Levita, Anton P. Martinez, Liam Mason, et al. 2021. “The Authoritarian Dynamic During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Effects on Nationalism and Anti-Immigrant Sentiment.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 12 (7): 1274–1285. doi:10.1177/1948550620978023.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hine, David. 2015. “Public Ethics and Political Corruption in Italy.” In The Oxford Handbook of Italian Politics, edited by Erik Jones and Gianfranco Pasquino, 608–620. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hong, Seung-Hun, Ha Hwang, and Min-Hye Park. 2021. “Effect of COVID-19 Non- Pharmaceutical Interventions and the Implications for Human Rights.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18 (1): 217. doi:10.3390/ijerph18010217.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopkin, Jonathan. 2015. “Bipolarity (and After).” In The Oxford Handbook of Italian Politics, edited by Erik Jones and Gianfranco Pasquino, 325–338. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Iancu, Bogdan. 2009. “Constitutionalism in Perpetual Transition: The Case of Romania.” In The Law/Politics Distinction in Contemporary Public Law Adjudication, edited by Bogdan Iancu, 187–211. Eleven International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Iancu, Bogdan. 2010. “Post-Accession Constitutionalism with a Human Face: Judicial Reform and Lustration in Romania.” European Constitutional Law Review 6 (1): 28–58. doi:10.1017/S1574019610100030.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iancu, Bogdan. 2017. “Constitutional Revision in Romania: Post-Accession Pluralism in Action’.” In Constitutional Acceleration Within the European Union and Beyond, edited by Paul Blokker. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Iohannis, Klaus. May 14, 2020. Press Statement. https://www.presidency.ro/ro/presedinte/agenda-presedintelui/declaratia-de-presa-sustinuta-de-presedintele-romaniei-domnul-klaus-iohannis1589471195
   Google Scholar
• Jones, Erik. 2021. “Italy and Europe: From Competence to Solidarity to Competence.” Contemporary Italian Politics 13 (2): 196–209. doi:10.1080/23248823.2021.1911617.
   Google Scholar
• Kelemen, R. Daniel. 2017. “Europe’s Other Democratic Deficit: National Authoritarianism in Europe’s Democratic Union.” Government and Opposition 52 (2): 211–238. doi:10.1017/gov.2016.41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laczó, Ferenc, and Luka Lisjak Gabrijelčič. 2021. The Legacy of Division: East and West After 1989. CEU Press.
   Google Scholar
• Law No. 453. November 12, 2004. Official Gazette of Romania. No 1.052
   Google Scholar
• Levitsky, Stephan, and David Ziblatt. 2018. How Democracies Die. Penguin
   Google Scholar
• Lowi, Theodore. 1974. The Politics of Disorder. New York: Norton.
   Google Scholar
• Maor, Moshe, Raanan Sulitzeanu-Kenan, and David Chinitz. 2020. “When COVID-19, Constitutional Crisis, and Political Crisis Meet: The Israeli Case from a Disproportionate Policy Perspective.” Policy and Society 39 (3): 442–457. doi:10.1080/14494035.2020.1783792.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marangoni, Francesco, and Luca Verzichelli. 2019. “Goat-Stag, Chimera, or Chameleon? The Formation and First Semester of the Conte Government.” Contemporary Italian Politics 11 (3): 263–279. doi:10.1080/23248823.2019.1645998.
   Google Scholar
• Medve-Bálint, Gergő, and Vera Šćepanović. 2020. “EU Funds, State Capacity and the Development of Transnational Industrial Policies in Europe’s Eastern Periphery.” Review of International Political Economy 27 (5): 1063–1082. doi:10.1080/09692290.2019.1646669.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merkel, Wolfgang. 2020. “Who Governs in Deep Crises?” Democratic Theory 7 (2): 1–11. doi:10.3167/dt.2020.070202.
   Google Scholar
• Mudde, Cas. 2021. “Populism in Europe: An Illiberal Democratic Response to Undemocratic Liberalism.” Government and Opposition, 1–21. doi:10.1017/gov.2021.15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mudde, Cass, and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser. 2012. “Populism and (Liberal) Democracy: A Framework for Analysis.” In Populism in Europe and the Americas: Threat or Corrective for Democracy?, edited by Cass Mudde and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser. London: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mungiu -Pippidi, Alina. 2015. Government Favouritism in Europe: The Anticorruption Report, 3. Berlin: Verlag Barbara Budrich.
   Google Scholar
• Murray, D. R., M. Schaller, and P. Suedfeld. 2013. “Pathogens and Politics: Further Evidence that Parasite Prevalence Predicts Authoritarianism.” PLoS One 8 (5): e62275. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musella, Fortunato. 2020. “The Personalization of Italian Politics in Three Acts.” Contemporary Italian Politics 12 (4): 411–424. doi:10.1080/23248823.2020.1838870.
   Google Scholar
• Nannicini, Tommaso, Stefano Sacchi, and Filippo Taddei. 2019. “The Trajectory of the Jobs Act and the Politics of Structural Reforms Between Counter-Reforms and Ambiguity.” Contemporary Italian Politics 11 (3): 310–323. doi:10.1080/23248823.2019.1643966.
   Google Scholar
• Orban, Ludovic. May 6, 2020a. Public Statement. https://www.digi24.ro/stiri/actualitate/orban-actuala-ccr-e-de-partea-celor-care-incalca-legea-e-un-indemn-la-anarhie-guvernul-e-impiedicat-sa-apere-sanatatea-romanilor-1303089
   Google Scholar
• Orban, Ludovic. June 17, 2020b. Public Statement. https://www.mediafax.ro/politic/declaratie-surpriza-a-lui-ludovic-orban-curtea-constitutionala-filiala-a-psd-19302673
   Google Scholar
• Paoli, Letizia. 2015. “Mafia, Camorra, and ‘Ndrangheta.” In The Oxford Handbook of Italian Politics, edited by Erik Jones and Gianfranco Pasquino, 668–681. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Parrado, Salvador, and Davide Galli. 2021. “Intergovernmental Veto Points in Crisis Management: Italy and Spain Facing the COVID-19 Pandemic.” International Review of Administrative Sciences 87 (3): 576–592. doi:10.1177/0020852320985925.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pasquino, Gianfranco. 2019. “The State of the Italian Republic.” Contemporary Italian Politics 11 (2): 195–204. doi:10.1080/23248823.2019.1585684.
   Google Scholar
• Pianta, Mario, Matteo Lucchese, and Leopoldo Nascia. 2021. “The Italian Government’s Economic-Policy Response to the Coronavirus Crisis.’.” Contemporary Italian Politics 13 (2): 210–225. doi:10.1080/23248823.2021.1908696.
   Google Scholar
• Politi, James. 2018. “Italian Election: The Resurrection of ‘Saint’ Silvio Berlusconi.” Financial Times, February 1.
   Google Scholar
• Raniolo, Francesco. 2016. “The Center-Right’s Search for a Leader.” Italian Politics 31 (1): 59–79. doi:10.3167/ip.2016.310105.
   Google Scholar
• Rapeli, Lauri, and Inga Saikkonen. 2020. “How Will the COVID-19 Pandemic Affect Democracy?” Democratic Theory 7 (2): 25–32. doi:10.3167/dt.2020.070204.
   Google Scholar
• Rhodes, Martin. 2015. “Tangentopoli – More Than 20 Years On.” In The Oxford Handbook of Italian Politics, edited by Erik Jones, and Gianfranco Pasquino, 309–324. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rullo, Luigi. 2021. “The COVID-19 Pandemic Crisis and the Personalization of the Government in Italy.” International Journal of Public Leadership 17 (2): 196–207. doi:10.1108/IJPL-08-2020-0083.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shugart, Matthew. 2005. “Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns.” French Politics 3: 323–351.
   Google Scholar
• Skowronek, Stephen, John A. Dearborn, and Desmond King. 2021. Phantoms of a Beleaguered Republic: The Deep State and the Unitary Executive. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stanley, Ben. 2017. “Populism in Central and Eastern Europe.” In Oxford Handbook of Populism, edited by Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser, Paul Taggart, Paulina Ochoa Espejo, and Pierre Ostiguy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Streeck, Wolfgang. 2016. How Will Capitalism end?: Essays on a Failing System. Verso Books.
   Google Scholar
• Tănăsescu, Simina. 2008. “The President of Romania, Or: The Slippery Slope of a Political System.” European Constitutional Law Review 4: 64–97.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• US State Department. 2021. Romania 2021 Human Rights Report. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/313615_ROMANIA-2021-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Vachudova, Milada Anna. 2020. “Ethnopopulism and Democratic Backsliding in Central Europe.” East European Politics 36 (3): 318–340. doi:10.1080/21599165.2020.1787163.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venice Commission. 2021. Letter Addressed to the Romanian Government and Parliament. https://cdn.g4media.ro/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Lettre-de-M-Gianni-BUQUICCHIO-Pre%CC%81sident-de-la-Commission-de-Venise-1.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Ștefan, Laurentiu. 2019. “Romania: Presidential Politics and Coalition Bargaining’.” In Coalition Governance in Central Eastern Europe, edited by T. Bergman, G. Ilonszki, and W. C. Müller, 389–434. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar