Limited English proficiency inhibits auditory verbal learning in cognitively healthy young adults – exploring culturally responsive diagnostic and educational safeguards

References

• Abeare, C. A., Freund, S., Kaploun, K., McAuley, T., & Dumitrescu, C. (2017). The Emotion Word Fluency Test (EWFT): Initial psychometric, validation, and physiological evidence in young adults. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 39(8), 738–752. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2016.1259396
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abeare, C. A., Hurtubise, J. L., Cutler, L., Sirianni, C., Brantuo, M., Makhzoum, N., & Erdodi, L. A. (2021). Introducing a forced choice recognition trial to the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test – Revised. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35(8), 1442–1470. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2020.1779348
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali, S., Elliott, L., Biss, R. K., Abumeeiz, M., Brantuo, M., Kuzmenka, P., Odenigbo, P., & Erdodi, L. A. (2020). The BNT-15 provides an accurate measure of English proficiency in cognitively intact bilinguals – a study in cross-cultural assessment. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult. Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2020.1760277
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• An, K. Y., Kaploun, K., Erdodi, L. A., & Abeare, C. A. (2017). Performance validity in undergraduate research participants: A comparison of failure rates across tests and cutoffs. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(1), 193–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1217046
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• An, K. Y., Zakzanis, K. K., & Joordens, S. (2012). Conducting research with non-clinical healthy undergraduates: Does effort play a role in neuropsychological test performance? Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(8), 849–857. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acs085
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrade, M. S., Evans, N. W., & Hartshorn, K. J. (2014). Linguistic support for non-native English speakers: Higher education practices in the United States. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 51(2), 207–221. https://doi.org/10.1515/jsarp-2014-0020
   Google Scholar
• Ansaldo, A. I., Marcotte, K., Scherer, L., & Raboyeau, G. (2008). Language therapy and bilingual aphasia: Clinical implications of psycholinguistic and neuroimaging research. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 21(6), 539–557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2008.02.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babikian, T., Boone, K. B., Lu, P., & Arnold, G. (2006). Sensitivity and specificity of various Digit Span scores in the detection of suspect effort. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20(1), 145–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040590947362
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baik, C., & Greig, J. (2009). Improving the academic outcomes of undergraduate ESL students: The case for discipline‐based academic skills programs. Higher Education Research & Development, 28(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360903067005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, K. C., Goatte, W., Ramos-Usuga, D., Rivera, D., & Arango-Lasprilla, J. C. (2021). Cross-validation of the utility of Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) cut-offs in a large Colombian sample. Psychological Injury and Law, 14(2), 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-021-09407-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bialystok, E., Craik, F., & Luk, G. (2008). Cognitive control and lexical access in younger and older bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(4), 859–873.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boone, K. B., Victor, T. L., Wen, J., Razani, J., & Pontón, M. (2007). The association between neuropsychological scores and ethnicity, language, and acculturation variables in a large patient population. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(3), 355–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borod, J. C., Goodglass, H., & Kaplan, E. (1980). Normative data on the Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination, Parietal Lobe Battery, and the Boston Naming Test. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 2(3), 209–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/01688638008403793
   Google Scholar
• Brandt, J., & Benedict, R. H. B. (2001). Hopkins verbal learning test – revised. Psychological Assessment Services.
   Google Scholar
• Cutler, L., Abeare, C., Messa, I., Holcomb, M., & Erdodi, L. A. (2021). This will only take a minute: Time cutoffs are superior to accuracy cutoffs on the Forced Choice Recognition trial of the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test – Revised. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult. https://doi.org/10.1080//23279095.2021.1884555
   Google Scholar
• Daugherty, J. C., Puente, A. E., Fasfous, A. F., Hidalgo-Ruzzante, N., & Pérez-Garcia, M. (2017). Diagnostic mistakes of culturally diverse individuals when using North American neuropsychological tests. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 24(1), 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2015.1036992
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daugherty, J. C., Puente, A. E., Lozano-Ruiz, A., & Perez-Garcia, M. (2020). Cultural accommodations for cutoff scores of embedded performance validity tests in a Spanish college population. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2020.1846536
   Google Scholar
• Delis, D. C., Kramer, J. H., Kaplan, E., & Ober, B. (2000). The California Verbal Learning Test –. Second Edition. The Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• DeRight, J., & Jorgensen, R. S. (2015). I just want my research credit: Frequency of suboptimal effort in a non-clinical healthy undergraduate sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(1), 101–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2014.989267
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdodi, L., & Lajiness-O'Neill, R. (2012). Humor perception in bilinguals: Is language more than a code? Humor, 25(4), 459–468. https://doi.org/10.1515/humor-2012-0024
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdodi, L. A., & Abeare, C. A. (2020). Stronger together: The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition as a multivariate performance validity test in patients with traumatic brain injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 35(2), 188–204. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acz032/5613200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdodi, L. A., Jongsma, K. A., & Issa, M. (2017). The 15-item version of the Boston Naming test as an index of English proficiency. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(1), 168–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1224392
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdodi, L. A., Nussbaum, S., Sagar, S., Abeare, C. A., & Schwartz, E. S. (2017). Limited English proficiency increases failure rates on performance validity tests with high verbal mediation. Psychological Injury and Law, 10(1), 96–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12207-017-9282-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finlay, L., Goldberg, H., Arentsen, T., Lo, T., & Moriarti, T. (2010). Effects of English as a second language (ESL) on verbal memory scores. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 25(6), 475–582.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franzen, S. (2021). Cross-cultural neuropsychological assessment in Europe: Position statement of the European Consortium on Cross-Cultural Neuropsychology (ECCroN). The Clinical Neuropsychologist. Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2021.1981456
   Google Scholar
• Franzen, S., Papma, J. M., van den Berg, E., & Nielsen, T. R. (2021). Cross-cultural neuropsychological assessment in the European Union: A Delphi expert study. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 36(5), 815–830.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeman, M. R., Blumenfeld, H. K., & Marian, V. (2017). Cross-linguistic phonotactic competition and cognitive control in bilinguals. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 29(7), 783–794.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fujii, D. E. (2018). Developing a cultural context for conducting a neuropsychological evaluation with a culturally diverse client: The ECLECTIC framework. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 32(8), 1356–1392. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2018.1435826
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gasquoine, P. G., Croyle, K. L., Cavazos-Gonzalez, C., & Sandoval, O. (2007). Language of administration and neuropsychological test performance in neurologically intact Hispanic American bilingual adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(8), 991–1001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldschmidt, M. M., & Seifried, T. (2008). Mismatched expectations among developmental ESL students in higher education. Research and Teaching in Developmental Education, 24(2), 27–38.
   Google Scholar
• Gollan, T. H., Montoya, R. I., & Werner, G. A. (2002). Semantic and letter fluency in Spanish-English bilinguals. Neuropsychology, 16(4), 562–576. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.16.4.562
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodglass, H., Kaplan, E., & Barresi, B. (2001). Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination. (3rd ed.). Pro-Ed.
   Google Scholar
• Gooding, A., Cole, J. R., & Hamberger, M. J. (2018). Assessment of naming in non-native English speakers with epilepsy. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 24(10), 1057–1063. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617718000632
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinly, M. T., Greve, K. W., Bianchini, K., Love, J. M., & Brennan, A. (2005). WAIS digit span-based indicators of malingered neurocognitive dysfunction: Classification accuracy in traumatic brain injury. Assessment, 12(4), 429–444. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191105281099
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurtubise, J., Baher, T., Messa, I., Cutler, L., Shahein, A., Hastings, M., Carignan-Querqui, M., & Erdodi, L. (2020). Verbal fluency and digit span variables as performance validity indicators in experimentally induced malingering and real world patients with TBI. Applied Neuropsychology. Child, 9(4), 337–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2020.1719409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivanova, I., & Costa, A. (2008). Does bilingualism hamper lexical access in speech production? Acta Psychologica, 127(2), 277–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.06.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning. The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21(1), 60–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanno, Y., & Varghese, M. M. (2010). Immigrant and refugee ESL students’ challenges to accessing four-year college education: From language policy to educational policy. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 9(5), 310–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2010.517693
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaushanskaya, M., Blumenfeld, H. K., & Marian, V. (2020). The language experience and proficiency questionnaire (leap-q): Ten years later. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(5), 945–950. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728919000038
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kisser, J. E., Wendell, C. R., Spencer, R. J., & Waldstein, S. R. (2012). Neuropsychological performance of native versus non-native English speakers. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(7), 749–755. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acs082
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohnert, K. J., Hernandez, A. E., & Bates, E. (1998). Bilingual performance on the Boston Naming Test: preliminary norms in Spanish and English. Brain and Language, 65(3), 422–440.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakin, J. M., Elliott, D. C., & Liu, O. L. (2012). Investigating ESL students’ performance on outcomes assessments in higher education. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 72(5), 734–753. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164412442376
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mack, W. J., Freed, D. M., Williams, B. W., & Henderson, V. W. (1992). Boston Naming Test: Shortened versions for use in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Gerontology, 47(3), P154–158. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/47.3.p154
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marian, V., Blumenfeld, H. K., & Kaushanskaya, M. (2007). The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Assessing language profiles in bilinguals and multilinguals. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research : JSLHR, 50(4), 940–967.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michael, E. B., & Gollan, T. H. (2005). Being and becoming bilingual: Individual differences and consequences for language production. In J. F. Kroll., & A. M. B. de Groot. (Eds), Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nijdam-Jones, A., Rivera, D., Rosenfeld, B., & Arango-Lasprilla, J. C. (2017). Cross-cultural analysis of the Test of Memory Malingering among Latin American Spanish speaking individuals. Law and Human Behavior, 41 (5), 422–428. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000250
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Razani, J., Burciaga, J., Madore, M., & Wong, J. (2007). Effects of acculturation on tests of attention and information processing in an ethnically diverse group. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(3), 333–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Razani, J., Murcia, G., Tabares, J., & Wong, J. (2007). The effects of culture on WASI test performance in ethnically diverse individuals. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21(5), 776–788. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040701437481
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reitan, R. M. (1955). The relation of the Trail Making Test to organic brain damage. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 19(5), 393–394. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0044509
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rivera Mindt, M., Arentoft, A., Kubo Germano, K., D'Aquila, E., Scheiner, D., Pizzirusso, M., Sandoval, T. C., & Gollan, T. H. (2008). Neuropsychological, cognitive, and theoretical considerations for evaluation of bilingual individuals. Neuropsychology Review, 18(3), 255–268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, P. M., Garcia, L. J., Desrochers, A., & Hernandez, D. (2002). English performance of proficient bilingual adults on the Boston Naming Test. Aphasiology, 16(4-6), 635–645. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687030244000220
   Google Scholar
• Robles, L., López, E., Salazar, X., Boone, K. B., & Glaser, D. F. (2015). Specificity data for the b Test, Dot Counting Test, Rey-15 Item plus Recognition, and Rey Word Recognition Test in monolingual Spanish-speakers. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 37(6), 614–621. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2015.1039961
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross, T. P., Poston, A. M., Rein, P. A., Salvatore, A. N., Wills, N. L., & York, T. M. (2016). Performance invalidity base rates among healthy undergraduate research participants. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31(1), 97–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roye, S., Calamia, M., Bernstein, J. P., De Vito, A. N., & Hill, B. D. (2019). A multi-study examination of performance validity in undergraduate research participants. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 33(6), 1138–1155. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2018.1520303
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan, C. (2013). Language Use in the United States: 2011. American Community Survey Reports, ACS-22. U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Sakai, K. L. (2005). Language acquisition and brain development. Science, 310(5749), 815–819. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1113530
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salazar, X. F., Lu, P. H., Wen, J., & Boone, K. B. (2007). The use of effort tests in ethnic minorities and in non-English-speaking and English as a second language populations. Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment: A neuropsychological perspective (pp. 405–427).
   Google Scholar
• Santos, O. A., Kazakov, D., Reamer, M. K., Park, S. E., & Osmon, D. C. (2014). Effort in college undergraduate is sufficient on the Word Memory Test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(7), 609–613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder, R. W., & Marshall, P. S. (2010). Validation of the sentence repetition test as a measure of suspect effort. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 24(2), 326–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040903369441
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shura, R. D., Martindale, S. L., Taber, K. H., Higgins, A. M., & Rowland, J. A. (2020). Digit Span embedded validity indicators in neurologically-intact veterans. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 34(5), 1025–1037. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2019.1635209
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silk-Eglit, G. M., Stenclik, J. H., Gavett, B. E., Adams, J. W., Lynch, J. K., & Mccaffrey, R. J. (2014). Base rate of performance invalidity among non-clinical undergraduate research participants. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(5), 415–421.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stålhammar, J., Hellström, P., Eckerström, C., & Wallin, A. (2020). Neuropsychological test performance among native and non-native Swedes: Second language effects. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acaa043
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tao, L., Taft, M., & Gollan, T. H. (2015). The bilingual switching advantage: Sometimes related to bilingual proficiency, sometimes not. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 21(7), 531–544.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., Xiang, J., Vannest, J., Holroyd, T., Narmoneva, D., Horn, P., Liu, Y., Rose, D., deGrauw, T., & Holland, S. (2011). Neuromagnetic measures of word processing in bilinguals and monolinguals. Clinical Neurophysiology, 122(9), 1706–1717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2011.02.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler adult intelligence scale. Third Edition. The Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Whitney, K. A., Davis, J. J., Shepard, P. H., Bertram, D. M., & Adams, K. M. (2009). Digit Span age scaled score in middle-aged military veterans: Is it more closely associated with TOMM failure than Reliable Digit Span? Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24(3), 263–272. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acp034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkinson, G. S., & Robertson, G. J. (2006). Wide range achievement test. Fourth Edition. Psychological Assessment Resources Inc.
   Google Scholar