Male out-migration from the Himalaya: implications in gender roles and household food (in)security in the Kaligandaki Basin, Nepal

References

• Acharya, C. P., & Leon-Gonzalez, R. (2012), The impact of remittance on poverty and inequality: A micro simulation study for Nepal. Discussion Paper: 11-26, National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies, Retrieved from http://www.grips.ac.jp/r-center/wp-content/uploads/11-26.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Acharya, C. P., & Leon-Gonzalez, R. (2019). The quest for quality education: International remittances and rural–Urban migration in Nepal. Migration and Development, 8(2). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/21632324.2018.1429834
   Google Scholar
• Acosta, P. (2006). Labour supply, school attendance, and remittances from international migration: The case of El Salvador. World Bank Policy Research Paper #3903. Retrieved from 2016, June 05 http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1596/1813-9450-3
   Google Scholar
• Adhikari, J., & Hobley, M. (2015). Everyone is leaving. Who will sow our fields? The livelihood effects on women due to male migration from Khotang and Udaypur districts of Nepal to the Gulf countries and Malaysia. Himalaya, the Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies, 35(1), Article 7. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/himalaya/vol35/iss1/7
   Google Scholar
• Alston, M. (2013). Environmental social work: Accounting for gender in climate disasters. Australian Social Work, 66(2), 218–233.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amuendo-Dorantes, C., & Pozo, S. (2006). Migration, remittances, and male and female employment patterns. The American Economic Review, 96(2), 222–226.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, B., Leo-Rhynie, E., & Morris, J. (2000). Why Theory?. In J. L. Parpart, M. P. Connelly, & V. E. Barriteau (Eds.), Theoretical perspectives on gender and development,  1-21. Ottawa, Canada: the International Development Research Centre.
   Google Scholar
• Bohora-Mishra, P. (2013). Labour migration and investments by remaining households in rural Nepal. Journal of Population Research, 30(2), 171–192.
   Google Scholar
• Bohora-Mishra, P., & Massey, D. S. (2009). Processes of internal and international migration from Chitwan, Nepal. International Migration Review, 43(3), 621–651.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, B. (1983). The impact of male labour migration on women in Botswana. African Affairs, 82(38), 367–388.
   Google Scholar
• CBS. (2011a). Nepal living standards survey 2010/11: Statistical report, vol. 2. Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission Secretariat, Government of Nepal.
   Google Scholar
• CBS. (2011b). Nepal labour force survey 2010/11 central bureau of statistics. National Planning Commission Secretariat, Government of Nepal. Kathmandu.
   Google Scholar
• CBS. 2012. National population and housing census 2011 (National Report) (Vol. 1). Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission Secretariat.
   Google Scholar
• CBS, WFP, WB, AusAID, UNICEF. (2013b). Nepal thematic report on food security and nutrition 2013. Kathmandu: NPC/Central Bureau of Statistics.
   Google Scholar
• Chapagain, B., & Gentle, P. (2015). Withdrawing from agrarian livelihoods: Environmental migration in Nepal. Journal of Mountain Science, 12,(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-014-3017-1
   Google Scholar
• Chaulagain, N. P. 2006. Impacts of climate change on water resources of Nepal: The physical and socioeconomic dimensions. PhD Thesis, (Dissertation Zur Erlangung des Grades: Doktor der Wirtschaftswissenschaften (Dr. rer. Pol.) an der Universität. Flensburg.
   Google Scholar
• Chodorow, N. (1978). Reproducing mothering. Berkeley: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Coates, J. (2004). Experience and expression of food insecurity across cultures: Practical implications for valid measurement. NW Washington: Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project (FANTA), Academy for Educational Development.
   Google Scholar
• Coates, J., Swindale, A., & Bilinsky, P. (2007). Household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) for measurement of food access: Indicator guide, VERSION 3. NW Washington: Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project (FANTA), Academy for Educational Development.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. H., Rodriguez, L., & Margaret, F. (2008). Gender and migration in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca. International Migration, 46(1), 79-101.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De la Garza, R. (2010). Migration, development and children left behind: A multidimensional perspective. UNICEF, New York. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Postscript_Formatted__Migration_Development_and_Children_Left_Behind.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Desai, S., & Banerji, M. (2008). Negotiated identities: Male migration and left-behind wives in India. Journal of Population Research, 25(3), 337–355.
   Google Scholar
• Dey, S. (2014). Impact of remittances on poverty at origin: A study on rural households in India using covariate balancing propensity score matching. Migration and Development, 4(2), 185–199.
   Google Scholar
• Esplen, E., & Brody, A. (2007). Putting gender back in the picture: rethinking women’s economic empowerment. Institute of Development Studies: Bridge (development-gender). UK: IDS.
   Google Scholar
• FAO. (2011). The state of food and agriculture 2010–11. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
   Google Scholar
• FAO. (2014). Interactive hunger map (2012-2014). Retrieved from 2015, February 7 <http://www.fao.org/hunger/en/>
   Google Scholar
• Fleury, A. (2016). Understanding women and migration: A literature review. KNOMAD Working Paper 8,
   Google Scholar
• Gartaula, H. N. (2009). International migration and local development in Nepal. CNAS Journal, 36(1), 37–65.
   Google Scholar
• Glazier, I. A., & De Rosa, L. (1986). Migration across time and nations: Population mobility in historical contexts. New York: Holmes & Meier.
   Google Scholar
• Goh, A. H. 2012. A literature review of the gender-differentiated impacts of climate change on women’s and men’s assets and well-being in developing countries. International Food Policy Research Institute. CAPRi Work.
   Google Scholar
• Gulati, L. (1986). The impact on the family of male migration to the Middle East: Some evidence from Kerala, India. In F. Arnold & N. M. Shah (Eds.), Asian labour migration: Pipeline to the Middle East (pp. 194–212). Boulder and London: Westview Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gurung, G. (2004). An overview paper on overseas employment in Nepal. Kathmandu: International Labour Organization.
   Google Scholar
• Gurung, H. B. (1983). Internal and international migration in Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal: HMG Population Commission.
   Google Scholar
• Hadi, A. (2001). International migration and the change of women’s position among the left-behind in rural Bangladesh. International Journal of Population Geography, 7, 53–61.
   Google Scholar
• Hoermann, B., & Kollmair, M. (2009). Labour migration and remittances in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region. ICIMOD Working Paper. Kathmandu, Nepal.
   Google Scholar
• IFPRI. (2016). Global hunger index. Washington DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. Interactive database of IFPRS. Retrieved from 2016, October 15 http://ghi.ifpri.org/on
   Google Scholar
• ILO. 2010. Labour and social trends in Nepal 2010. ILO Country Office for Nepal and National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal.
   Google Scholar
• IOM. 2019. International organization on migration, fact sheet. Retrieved from 2019, january 24 https://www.iom.int/global-migration-trends
   Google Scholar
• Jetley, S. (1987). Impact of male migration on rural females. Economic and Political Weekly, 22(44), WS47–WS53.
   Google Scholar
• Joshi-Rajkarnikar, P. 2017, The impacts of foreign labour migration of men on women’s empowerment in Nepal. Doctoral Dissertations. 882. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_2/882
   Google Scholar
• Kollmair, M., Manandhar, S., Subedi, B., & Thieme, S. (2006). New figures for old stories: Migration and remittances in Nepal. Migration Letters, 3,(2), 151–160.
   Google Scholar
• Lokshin, M., Bontch-Osmolovski, M., & Glinskaya, E. 2007. Work-related migration and poverty reduction in Nepal. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 4231.
   Google Scholar
• MacKinnon, C. (1989). Toward a feminist theory of state. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Maharjan, A., Bauer, S., & Knerr, B. (2012). Do rural women who stay behind benefit from male out-migration? A case study in the hills of Nepal. Gender, Technology and Development, 16(1), 95–123.
   Google Scholar
• Massey, D. S., Axinn, W. G., & Ghimire, D. J. (2010). Environmental change and out-migration: Evidence from Nepal. Population Environment, 32, 109–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McEvoy, J, Petrzelka, P, Radel, C, & Schmook, B. (2012). Gendered mobility and morality in a south-eastern mexican community: Impacts of male labor migration on the women left behind. Mobilities, 7(3), 369 – 388.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKenzie, S, & Menjivar, C. (2011). The Meanings of Migration, Remittances and Gifts: Views of Honduran Women Who Stay, Global Networks, 11(1), 63 – 81.
   Google Scholar
• NRB. (2016). Fifth household budget survey 2014/14. Kathmandu, Nepal: Nepal Rastra Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Pandey, R. (2016a). Status of food (in)security in the Trans-Himalaya, Upper-Mustang, Nepal. Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 10, 91–121.
   Google Scholar
• Pandey, R. 2016b. Human ecological implications of climate change in the Himalaya: Investigating opportunities for adaptation in the Kaligandaki Basin, Nepal. PhD Thesis, the University of Adelaide, School of Social Sciences. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2440/99095
   Google Scholar
• Pandey, R. (2017). Life and livelihoods in the forbidden kingdom, the Trans-Himalaya, Nepal. Dhawalagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 11, 24–59.
   Google Scholar
• Pandey, R., & Adhikari, R. 2013, Nepalese migrant women worker and their socio-spatial exclusion: A study of Pokhara Valley. unpublished research report submitted to University Grants Commission. Nepal.
   Google Scholar
• Pandey, R., & Bardsley, D. K. (2015). Social-ecological vulnerability to climate change in the Nepali Himalaya. Applied Geography, 64, 74–86.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pandey, R., & Bardsley, D. K. (2019). An application of the household food insecurity access scale to assess food security in rural communities of Nepal. Asia Pacific Policy Studies, 1–21. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/app5.270
   Google Scholar
• Pandey, V. L., Dev, S. M., & Jayachandran, U. (2016). Impact of agricultural interventions on the nutritional status in South Asia: A review. Food Policy, 62, 28–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paudel, K. P., Tamang, S., & Shrestha, K. K. (2014). Transforming land and livelihood: Analysis of agricultural land abandonment in the mid hills of Nepal. Journal of Forest and Livelihood, 12(1), 11–19.
   Google Scholar
• Piotrowski, M., Ghimire, D. J., & Rindfuss, R. (2013). Farming systems and rural out-migration in Nang Rong, Thailand, and Chitwan Valley, Nepal. Rural Sociology, 78(1), 75–108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rathaur, K. R. S. (2001). British Gurkha recruitment: A historical perspective. Voice of History, 16(2), 19–24.
   Google Scholar
• Reddock, R. (2000). Why gender? Why development? In J. L. Parpart, M. P. Connelly, & V. E. Barriteau (Eds.), Theoretical perspectives on gender and development, the international development research centre. Ottawa, Canada.
   Google Scholar
• Sapkota, C. (2013). Remittances in Nepal: boon or bane? The Journal of Development Studies, 49(10), 1316–1331.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, J. W. (1986). Gender: A useful category of historical analysis. The American Historical Review, 91(5), 1053-1075. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1864376.
   Google Scholar
• Shakya, J. 2014. Effects of outmigration of labour migrants on gender roles: A study in Nepal. MSc Development Studies Thesis. The University of Lund, Sweden. Retrieved from 2019, january 15 http://lup.lub.lu.se/student-papers/record/4612459
   Google Scholar
• Sharma, J., & Gurung, G. (2009). Impact of global economic slowdown on remittance inflows and poverty reduction in Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal: Institute for Integrated Development Studies (IIDS.
   Google Scholar
• Shrestha, S. S., & Bhandari, P. (2007). Environmental security and labour migration in Nepal. Population and Environment, 29(1), 25–38.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siddiqui, T. 2008. United national expert group meeting on international migration and development in Asia and the Pacific (UN/POP/EGM-MIG/2008/6). United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Bangkok, Thailand, 20–21 2008, September
   Google Scholar
• Sijapati, B., & Limbu, A. (2012). Governing labour migration in Nepal: An analysis of existing policies and institutional mechanisms. Kathmandu: Centre for the Study of Labour and Mobility, Himal Books.
   Google Scholar
• Singh, C. (2019). Migration as a driver of changing household structures: Implications for local livelihoods and adaptation. Migration and Development. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/21632324.2019.1589073
   Google Scholar
• Singh, K. M., Singh, R. K. P., & Kumar, A. 2013. Male worker migration and women empowerment: The case of Bihar, India. ICAR-RCER, Patna, ICRISAT, Hyderabad, MPRA Paper No. 49385, Retrieved from http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/49385/
   Google Scholar
• Subedi, B. P. 1993. Continuity and change in population movement from inside of rural Nepali community. PhD Dissertation in Geography, The University of Hawaii, Hawaii.
   Google Scholar
• Subedi, B. P., & Pandey, R. (2002). Livelihood strategies of Rai communities in Arun Valley: continuity and change. In R. P. Chaudhary, B. P. Subedi, O. R. Vetås, & T. H. Åse (Eds.), Vegetation and society: Their interaction in the Himalayas, Tribhuvan- Bergen Program 157–170. Kathmandu: Tribhuvan University and University of Bergen
   Google Scholar
• Subedi, B. P., Subedi, V. R., Dawadi, P. P., & Pandey, R. (2007). Livelihood at risk: Finding from Mid-western Nepal. Kathmandu: Informal Sector Service Centre (INSEC.
   Google Scholar
• Sulemana, I., Anarfo, E. B., & Quartey, P. (2019). International remittances and household food security in Sub-Saharan Africa. Migration and Development, 8(2), 264–280.
   Google Scholar
• Szabo, S., Adger, W. N., & Matthews, Z. (2018). Home is where the money goes: migration-related urban-rural integration in delta regions. Migration and Development, 7(2), 163–179.
   Google Scholar
• Tamang, S., Paudel, K. P., & Shrestha, K. K. (2014). Feminization of agriculture and its implications for food security in rural nepal. Journal Of Forest and Livelihood, 12(1), 20-32.
   Google Scholar
• Thieme, S., & Wyss, S. (2005). Migration patterns and remittance transfer in Nepal: A case study of Sainik Basti in Western Nepal. International Migration, 43(5), 59–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Zee, L. 2012. Changing gender relations and household roles due to migration and remittances: A study in Kumasi, Ghana. Masters Thesis. Nijmegen School of Management, Radboud University Nijmegen.
   Google Scholar
• West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender & Society, 1(2), 125–151.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. (2011). Gender, climate change and health. Geneva: World Health Organisation.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, N. E. (2013). How community organizations moderate the effect of armed conflict on migration in Nepal. Population Studies, 67(3), 353–369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wrathall, D. J. (2012). Migration amidst social-ecological regime shift: The search for stability in Garífuna villages of Northern Honduras. Human Ecology, 40(4), 583–596.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu, B., You, L., & Fan, S. 2010. Toward a typology of food security in developing countries. Discussion Paper 00945. 2010, January. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Development Strategy and Governance Division.
   Google Scholar
• Zheng, L., Haan, D., & M& Koops, M. (2019). Parental ethno theories of two groups of Chinese immigrants: A perspective from migration. Migration and Development, 8(2), 207–226.
   Google Scholar