3,456
Views
44
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Chikungunya vaccines in development

, , , &
Pages 716-731 | Received 15 Jul 2015, Accepted 23 Sep 2015, Published online: 05 May 2016

References

  • Weaver SC, Lecuit M. Chikungunya virus and the global spread of a mosquito-borne disease. N Engl J Med 2015; 372:1231-9; PMID:25806915; http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1406035
  • Robinson MC. An epidemic of virus disease in Southern Province, Tanganyika Territory, in 1952-53. I. Clinical features. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1955; 49:28-32; PMID:14373834; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(55)90080-8
  • Rezza G. Dengue and chikungunya: long-distance spread and outbreaks in naive areas. Pathog Glob Health 2014; 108:349-55; PMID:25491436; http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/2047773214Y.0000000163
  • WHO. Chikungunya Fact sheet N°327. 2015; http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs327/en/ (accessed June 18th, 2015).
  • Ross RW. The Newala epidemic. III. The virus: isolation, pathogenic properties and relationship to the epidemic. J Hyg 1956; 54:177-91; PMID:13346078; http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0022172400044442
  • Moyen N, Thiberville SD, Pastorino B, Nougairede A, Thirion L, Mombouli JV, Dimi Y, Leparc-Goffart I, Capobianchi MR, Lepfoundzou AD, et al. First reported chikungunya fever outbreak in the republic of Congo, 2011. PloS one 2014; 9:e115938; PMID:25541718; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0115938
  • Chretien JP, Anyamba A, Bedno SA, Breiman RF, Sang R, Sergon K, Powers AM, Onyango CO, Small J, Tucker CJ, et al. Drought-associated chikungunya emergence along coastal East Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007; 76:405-7; PMID:17360859
  • Economopoulou A, Dominguez M, Helynck B, Sissoko D, Wichmann O, Quenel P, Germonneau P, Quatresous I. Atypical Chikungunya virus infections: clinical manifestations, mortality and risk factors for severe disease during the 2005-2006 outbreak on Reunion. Epidemiol Infect 2009; 137:534-41; PMID:18694529; http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0950268808001167
  • Mudur G. Failure to control mosquitoes has led to two fever epidemics in India. BMJ 2006; 333:773; PMID:17038726; http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.333.7572.773-c
  • Gould EA, Gallian P, De Lamballerie X, Charrel RN. First cases of autochthonous dengue fever and chikungunya fever in France: from bad dream to reality! Clin Microbiol Infect 2010; 16:1702-4; PMID:21040155; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03386.x
  • Rezza G, Nicoletti L, Angelini R, Romi R, Finarelli AC, Panning M, Cordioli P, Fortuna C, Boros S, Magurano F, et al. Infection with chikungunya virus in Italy: an outbreak in a temperate region. Lancet 2007; 370:1840-6; PMID:18061059; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61779-6
  • Paty MC, Six C, Charlet F, Heuze G, Cochet A, Wiegandt A, Chappert JL, Dejour-Salamanca D, Guinard A, Soler P, et al. Large number of imported chikungunya cases in mainland France, 2014: a challenge for surveillance and response. Euro Surveill 2014; 19:20856; PMID:25060572
  • Halstead SB. Reappearance of chikungunya, formerly called dengue, in the americas. Emerg Infect Dis 2015; 21:557-61; PMID:25816211; http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2104.141723
  • Weaver SC. Arrival of chikungunya virus in the new world: prospects for spread and impact on public health. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2921; PMID:24967777; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002921
  • Tsetsarkin KA, Chen R, Leal G, Forrester N, Higgs S, Huang J, Weaver SC. Chikungunya virus emergence is constrained in Asia by lineage-specific adaptive landscapes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:7872-7; PMID:21518887; http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1018344108
  • CDC. 2015 provisional data for the United States. 2015; http://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/geo/united-states-2015.html (accessed August 26th, 2015).
  • Zheng K, Li J, Zhang Q, Liang M, Li C, Lin M, Huang J, Li H, Xiang D, Wang N, et al. Genetic analysis of chikungunya viruses imported to mainland China in 2008. Virol J 2010; 7:8; PMID:20078896; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-7-8
  • Fros JJ, Liu WJ, Prow NA, Geertsema C, Ligtenberg M, Vanlandingham DL, Schnettler E, Vlak JM, Suhrbier A, Khromykh AA, et al. Chikungunya virus nonstructural protein 2 inhibits type I/II interferon-stimulated JAK-STAT signaling. J Virol 2010; 84:10877-87; PMID:20686047; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00949-10
  • Dudha N, Rana J, Rajasekharan S, Gabrani R, Gupta A, Chaudhary VK, Gupta S. Host-pathogen interactome analysis of Chikungunya virus envelope proteins E1 and E2. Virus Genes 2015; 50:200-9; PMID:25563600; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11262-014-1161-x
  • Uchime O, Fields W, Kielian M. The role of E3 in pH protection during alphavirus assembly and exit. J Virol 2013; 87:10255-62; PMID:23864626; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01507-13
  • Choi HK, Tong L, Minor W, Dumas P, Boege U, Rossmann MG, Wengler G. Structure of Sindbis virus core protein reveals a chymotrypsin-like serine proteinase and the organization of the virion. Nature 1991; 354:37-43; PMID:1944569; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/354037a0
  • Hallengard D, Kakoulidou M, Lulla A, Kummerer BM, Johansson DX, Mutso M, Lulla V, Fazakerley JK, Roques P, Le Grand R, et al. Novel attenuated Chikungunya vaccine candidates elicit protective immunity in C57BL/6 mice. J Virol 2014; 88:2858-66; PMID:24371047; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.03453-13
  • Saisawang C, Sillapee P, Sinsirimongkol K, Ubol S, Smith DR, Ketterman AJ. Full length and protease domain activity of Chikungunya virus nsP2 differ from other alphavirus nsP2 proteases in recognition of small peptide substrates. Biosci Rep 2015; 35
  • Sam IC, Loong SK, Michael JC, Chua CL, Wan Sulaiman WY, Vythilingam I, Chan SY, Chiam CW, Yeong YS, AbuBakar S, et al. Genotypic and phenotypic characterization of Chikungunya virus of different genotypes from Malaysia. PloS one 2012; 7:e50476; PMID:23209750; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050476
  • Volk SM, Chen R, Tsetsarkin KA, Adams AP, Garcia TI, Sall AA, Nasar F, Schuh AJ, Holmes EC, Higgs S, et al. Genome-scale phylogenetic analyses of chikungunya virus reveal independent emergences of recent epidemics and various evolutionary rates. J Virol 2010; 84:6497-504; PMID:20410280; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01603-09
  • Tsetsarkin KA, Vanlandingham DL, McGee CE, Higgs S. A single mutation in chikungunya virus affects vector specificity and epidemic potential. PLoS Pathog 2007; 3:e201; PMID:18069894; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.0030201
  • ECDC. Aedes albopictus. 2014; http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/healthtopics/vectors/mosquitoes/Pages/aedes-albopictus.aspx (accessed July 10th, 2015)
  • Ribeiro JM, Rossignol PA, Spielman A. Role of mosquito saliva in blood vessel location. J Exp Biol 1984; 108:1-7; PMID:6707570
  • Ribeiro JM, Arca B, Lombardo F, Calvo E, Phan VM, Chandra PK, Wikel SK. An annotated catalogue of salivary gland transcripts in the adult female mosquito, Aedes aegypti. BMC Genomics 2007; 8:6; PMID:17204158; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2164-8-6
  • Maharaj PD, Widen SG, Huang J, Wood TG, Thangamani S. Discovery of mosquito saliva microRNAs during CHIKV infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003386; PMID:25612225; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003386
  • Puiprom O, Morales Vargas RE, Potiwat R, Chaichana P, Ikuta K, Ramasoota P, Okabayashi T. Characterization of chikungunya virus infection of a human keratinocyte cell line: role of mosquito salivary gland protein in suppressing the host immune response. Infect Genet Evol 2013; 17:210-5; PMID:23583544; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2013.04.005
  • Schneider BS, Higgs S. The enhancement of arbovirus transmission and disease by mosquito saliva is associated with modulation of the host immune response. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2008; 102:400-8; PMID:18342898; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.01.024
  • Calvo E, Mans BJ, Andersen JF, Ribeiro JM. Function and evolution of a mosquito salivary protein family. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:1935-42; PMID:16301315; http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M510359200
  • Thangamani S, Higgs S, Ziegler S, Vanlandingham D, Tesh R, Wikel S. Host immune response to mosquito-transmitted chikungunya virus differs from that elicited by needle inoculated virus. PloS one 2010; 5:e12137; PMID:20711354; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0012137
  • Schilte C, Couderc T, Chretien F, Sourisseau M, Gangneux N, Guivel-Benhassine F, Kraxner A, Tschopp J, Higgs S, Michault A, et al. Type I IFN controls chikungunya virus via its action on nonhematopoietic cells. J Exp Med 2010; 207:429-42; PMID:20123960; http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.20090851
  • Her Z, Malleret B, Chan M, Ong EK, Wong SC, Kwek DJ, Tolou H, Lin RT, Tambyah PA, Renia L, et al. Active infection of human blood monocytes by Chikungunya virus triggers an innate immune response. J Immunol 2010; 184:5903-13; http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.0904181
  • Sourisseau M, Schilte C, Casartelli N, Trouillet C, Guivel-Benhassine F, Rudnicka D, Sol-Foulon N, Le Roux K, Prevost MC, Fsihi H, et al. Characterization of reemerging chikungunya virus. PLoS Pathog 2007; 3:e89; PMID:17604450; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.0030089
  • Couderc T, Chretien F, Schilte C, Disson O, Brigitte M, Guivel-Benhassine F, Touret Y, Barau G, Cayet N, Schuffenecker I, et al. A mouse model for Chikungunya: young age and inefficient type-I interferon signaling are risk factors for severe disease. PLoS Pathog 2008; 4:e29; PMID:18282093; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.0040029
  • Kam YW, Ong EK, Renia L, Tong JC, Ng LF. Immuno-biology of Chikungunya and implications for disease intervention. Microbes and infection / Institut Pasteur 2009; 11:1186-96; PMID:19737625; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2009.09.003
  • Chow A, Her Z, Ong EK, Chen JM, Dimatatac F, Kwek DJ, Barkham T, Yang H, Renia L, Leo YS, et al. Persistent arthralgia induced by Chikungunya virus infection is associated with interleukin-6 and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor. J Infect Dis 2011; 203:149-57; PMID:21288813; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiq042
  • Gasque P, Couderc T, Lecuit M, Roques P, Ng LF. Chikungunya virus pathogenesis and immunity. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2015; 15:241-9; PMID:25897810; http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2014.1710
  • Wauquier N, Becquart P, Nkoghe D, Padilla C, Ndjoyi-Mbiguino A, Leroy EM. The acute phase of Chikungunya virus infection in humans is associated with strong innate immunity and T CD8 cell activation. J Infect Dis 2011; 204:115-23; PMID:21628665; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiq006
  • Schwartz O, Albert ML. Biology and pathogenesis of chikungunya virus. Nat Rev Microbiol 2010; 8:491-500; PMID:20551973; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2368
  • Labadie K, Larcher T, Joubert C, Mannioui A, Delache B, Brochard P, Guigand L, Dubreil L, Lebon P, Verrier B, et al. Chikungunya disease in nonhuman primates involves long-term viral persistence in macrophages. J Clin Investig 2010; 120:894-906; PMID:20179353; http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI40104
  • Selvamani SP, Mishra R, Singh SK. Chikungunya virus exploits miR-146a to regulate NF-kappaB pathway in human synovial fibroblasts. PloS one 2014; 9:e103624; PMID:25083878; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103624
  • Chen W, Foo SS, Rulli NE, Taylor A, Sheng KC, Herrero LJ, Herring BL, Lidbury BA, Li RW, Walsh NC, et al. Arthritogenic alphaviral infection perturbs osteoblast function and triggers pathologic bone loss. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:6040-5; PMID:24733914; http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1318859111
  • Noret M, Herrero L, Rulli N, Rolph M, Smith PN, Li RW, Roques P, Gras G, Mahalingam S. Interleukin 6, RANKL, and osteoprotegerin expression by chikungunya virus-infected human osteoblasts. J Infect Dis 2012; 206:455-7: 7-9; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jis368
  • Brandler S, Ruffie C, Combredet C, Brault JB, Najburg V, Prevost MC, Habel A, Tauber E, Despres P, Tangy F. A recombinant measles vaccine expressing chikungunya virus-like particles is strongly immunogenic and protects mice from lethal challenge with chikungunya virus. Vaccine 2013; 31:3718-25; PMID:23742993; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.05.086
  • Brehin AC, Rubrecht L, Navarro-Sanchez ME, Marechal V, Frenkiel MP, Lapalud P, Laune D, Sall AA, Despres P. Production and characterization of mouse monoclonal antibodies reactive to Chikungunya envelope E2 glycoprotein. Virology 2008; 371:185-95; PMID:17949772; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2007.09.028
  • Pal P, Dowd KA, Brien JD, Edeling MA, Gorlatov S, Johnson S, Lee I, Akahata W, Nabel GJ, Richter MK, et al. Development of a highly protective combination monoclonal antibody therapy against Chikungunya virus. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003312; PMID:23637602; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003312
  • Couderc T, Khandoudi N, Grandadam M, Visse C, Gangneux N, Bagot S, Prost JF, Lecuit M. Prophylaxis and therapy for Chikungunya virus infection. J Infect Dis 2009; 200:516-23; PMID:19572805; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/600381
  • Rudd PA, Wilson J, Gardner J, Larcher T, Babarit C, Le TT, Anraku I, Kumagai Y, Loo YM, Gale M, Jr., et al. Interferon response factors 3 and 7 protect against Chikungunya virus hemorrhagic fever and shock. J Virol 2012; 86:9888-98; PMID:22761364; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00956-12
  • Munoz-Jordan JL. Subversion of interferon by dengue virus. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2010; 338:35-44; PMID:19802576
  • Meylan E, Tschopp J. Toll-like receptors and RNA helicases: two parallel ways to trigger antiviral responses. Mol Cell 2006; 22:561-9; PMID:16762830; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2006.05.012
  • Morrison J, Aguirre S, Fernandez-Sesma A. Innate immunity evasion by Dengue virus. Viruses 2012; 4:397-413; PMID:22590678; http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v4030397
  • Rodriguez-Madoz JR, Belicha-Villanueva A, Bernal-Rubio D, Ashour J, Ayllon J, Fernandez-Sesma A. Inhibition of the type I interferon response in human dendritic cells by dengue virus infection requires a catalytically active NS2B3 complex. J Virol 2010; 84:9760-74; PMID:20660196; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01051-10
  • Hoang LT, Lynn DJ, Henn M, Birren BW, Lennon NJ, Le PT, Duong KT, Nguyen TT, Mai LN, Farrar JJ, et al. The early whole-blood transcriptional signature of dengue virus and features associated with progression to dengue shock syndrome in Vietnamese children and young adults. J Virol 2010; 84:12982-94; PMID:20943967; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01224-10
  • Ramirez-Ronda CH, Garcia CD. Dengue in the Western Hemisphere. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1994; 8:107-28; PMID:7912702
  • Chahar HS, Bao X, Casola A. Exosomes and Their Role in the Life Cycle and Pathogenesis of RNA Viruses. Viruses 2015; 7:3204-25; PMID:26102580; http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v7062770
  • Brass AL, Huang IC, Benita Y, John SP, Krishnan MN, Feeley EM, Ryan BJ, Weyer JL, van der Weyden L, Fikrig E, et al. The IFITM proteins mediate cellular resistance to influenza A H1N1 virus, West Nile virus, and dengue virus. Cell 2009; 139:1243-54; PMID:20064371; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2009.12.017
  • Zhu X, He Z, Yuan J, Wen W, Huang X, Hu Y, Lin C, Pan J, Li R, Deng H, et al. IFITM3-containing exosome as a novel mediator for anti-viral response in dengue virus infection. Cell Microbiol 2015; 17:105-18; PMID:25131332; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cmi.12339
  • Fink K, Ng C, Nkenfou C, Vasudevan SG, van Rooijen N, Schul W. Depletion of macrophages in mice results in higher dengue virus titers and highlights the role of macrophages for virus control. Eur J Immunol 2009; 39:2809-21; PMID:19637226; http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eji.200939389
  • Kalantri SP, Joshi R, Riley LW. Chikungunya epidemic: an Indian perspective. Natl Med J India 2006; 19:315-22; PMID:17343016
  • Yoon IK, Alera MT, Lago CB, Tac-An IA, Villa D, Fernandez S, Thaisomboonsuk B, Klungthong C, Levy JW, Velasco JM, et al. High rate of subclinical chikungunya virus infection and association of neutralizing antibody with protection in a prospective cohort in the Philippines. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003764; PMID:25951202; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003764
  • Staikowsky F, Talarmin F, Grivard P, Souab A, Schuffenecker I, Le Roux K, Lecuit M, Michault A. Prospective study of Chikungunya virus acute infection in the Island of La Reunion during the 2005-2006 outbreak. PloS one 2009; 4:e7603; PMID:19893613; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007603
  • Reddy V, Mani RS, Desai A, Ravi V. Correlation of plasma viral loads and presence of Chikungunya IgM antibodies with cytokine/chemokine levels during acute Chikungunya virus infection. J Med Virol 2014; 86:1393-401; PMID:24523146; http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.23875
  • Gerardin P, Fianu A, Michault A, Mussard C, Boussaid K, Rollot O, Grivard P, Kassab S, Bouquillard E, Borgherini G, et al. Predictors of Chikungunya rheumatism: a prognostic survey ancillary to the TELECHIK cohort study. Arthritis Res Ther 2013; 15:R9; PMID:23302155; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/ar4137
  • Simon F, Parola P, Grandadam M, Fourcade S, Oliver M, Brouqui P, Hance P, Kraemer P, Ali Mohamed A, de Lamballerie X, et al. Chikungunya infection: an emerging rheumatism among travelers returned from Indian Ocean islands. Report of 47 cases. Medicine 2007; 86:123-37; PMID:17505252; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MD/0b013e31806010a5
  • Taubitz W, Cramer JP, Kapaun A, Pfeffer M, Drosten C, Dobler G, Burchard GD, Loscher T. Chikungunya fever in travelers: clinical presentation and course. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45:e1-4; PMID:17554689; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/518701
  • Mohan A. Chikungunya fever: clinical manifestations & management. Indian J Med Res 2006; 124:471-4; PMID:17213512
  • Rohatgi A, Corbo JC, Monte K, Higgs S, Vanlandingham DL, Kardon G, Lenschow DJ. Infection of myofibers contributes to increased pathogenicity during infection with an epidemic strain of chikungunya virus. J Virol 2014; 88:2414-25; PMID:24335291; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.02716-13
  • Josseran L, Paquet C, Zehgnoun A, Caillere N, Le Tertre A, Solet JL, Ledrans M. Chikungunya disease outbreak, Reunion Island. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12:1994-5; PMID:17354339; http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1212.060710
  • Renault P, Solet JL, Sissoko D, Balleydier E, Larrieu S, Filleul L, Lassalle C, Thiria J, Rachou E, de Valk H, et al. A major epidemic of chikungunya virus infection on Reunion Island, France, 2005-2006. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007; 77:727-31; PMID:17978079
  • Schilte C, Staikowsky F, Couderc T, Madec Y, Carpentier F, Kassab S, Albert ML, Lecuit M, Michault A. Chikungunya virus-associated long-term arthralgia: a 36-month prospective longitudinal study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2137; PMID:23556021; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002137
  • Simon F, Javelle E, Gasque P. Chikungunya Virus Infections. N Engl J Med 2015; 373:93-4; PMID:26132957; http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc1505501
  • Chen W, Foo SS, Sims NA, Herrero LJ, Walsh NC, Mahalingam S. Arthritogenic alphaviruses: new insights into arthritis and bone pathology. Trends Microbiol 2015; 23:35-43; PMID:25449049; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2014.09.005
  • Ozden S, Huerre M, Riviere JP, Coffey LL, Afonso PV, Mouly V, de Monredon J, Roger JC, El Amrani M, Yvin JL, et al. Human muscle satellite cells as targets of Chikungunya virus infection. PloS one 2007; 2:e527; PMID:17565380; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000527
  • Hoarau JJ, Jaffar Bandjee MC, Krejbich Trotot P, Das T, Li-Pat-Yuen G, Dassa B, Denizot M, Guichard E, Ribera A, Henni T, et al. Persistent chronic inflammation and infection by Chikungunya arthritogenic alphavirus in spite of a robust host immune response. J Immunol 2010; 184:5914-27; http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.0900255
  • Pialoux G, Gauzere BA, Jaureguiberry S, Strobel M. Chikungunya, an epidemic arbovirosis. Lancet Infect Dis 2007; 7:319-27; PMID:17448935; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70107-X
  • Sudeep AB, Parashar D. Chikungunya: an overview. J Biosci 2008; 33:443-9; PMID:19208970; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12038-008-0063-2
  • Chevillon C, Briant L, Renaud F, Devaux C. The Chikungunya threat: an ecological and evolutionary perspective. Trends Microbiol 2008; 16:80-8; PMID:18191569; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2007.12.003
  • Magurano F, Zammarchi L, Baggieri M, Fortuna C, Farese A, Benedetti E, Fiorentini C, Rezza G, Nicoletti L, Bartoloni A. Chikungunya from the Caribbean: the importance of appropriate laboratory tests to confirm the diagnosis. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2015; 15:258-60; PMID:25897812; http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2014.1724
  • Foissac M, Javelle E, Ray S, Guerin B, Simon F. Post-Chikungunya rheumatoid arthritis, Saint Martin. Emerg Infect Dis 2015; 21:530-2; PMID:25695499; http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2103.141397
  • Kam YW, Lee WW, Simarmata D, Harjanto S, Teng TS, Tolou H, Chow A, Lin RT, Leo YS, Renia L, et al. Longitudinal analysis of the human antibody response to Chikungunya virus infection: implications for serodiagnosis and vaccine development. J Virol 2012; 86:13005-15; PMID:23015702; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01780-12
  • Panning M, Grywna K, van Esbroeck M, Emmerich P, Drosten C. Chikungunya fever in travelers returning to Europe from the Indian Ocean region, 2006. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14:416-22; PMID:18325256; http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1403.070906
  • Pierro A, Rossini G, Gaibani P, Finarelli AC, Moro ML, Landini MP, Sambri V. Persistence of anti-chikungunya virus-specific antibodies in a cohort of patients followed from the acute phase of infection after the 2007 outbreak in Italy. New Microbes New Infect 2015; 7:23-5; PMID:26106482; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nmni.2015.04.002
  • Borgherini G, Poubeau P, Jossaume A, Gouix A, Cotte L, Michault A, Arvin-Berod C, Paganin F. Persistent arthralgia associated with chikungunya virus: a study of 88 adult patients on reunion island. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47:469-75; PMID:18611153; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/590003
  • de Andrade DC, Jean S, Clavelou P, Dallel R, Bouhassira D. Chronic pain associated with the Chikungunya Fever: long lasting burden of an acute illness. BMC Infect Dis 2010; 10:31; PMID:20170492; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-10-31
  • WHO. Guidelines on Clinical Management of Chikungunya Fever. 2008; http://www.wpro.who.int/mvp/topics/ntd/Clinical_Mgnt_Chikungunya_WHO_SEARO.pdf (accessed August 25th, 2015)
  • Briolant S, Garin D, Scaramozzino N, Jouan A, Crance JM. In vitro inhibition of Chikungunya and Semliki Forest viruses replication by antiviral compounds: synergistic effect of interferon-alpha and ribavirin combination. Antiviral Res 2004; 61:111-7; PMID:14670584; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2003.09.005
  • Rothan HA, Bahrani H, Mohamed Z, Teoh TC, Shankar EM, Rahman NA, Yusof R. A combination of doxycycline and ribavirin alleviated chikungunya infection. PloS one 2015; 10:e0126360; PMID:25970853; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126360
  • De Lamballerie X, Boisson V, Reynier JC, Enault S, Charrel RN, Flahault A, Roques P, Le Grand R. On chikungunya acute infection and chloroquine treatment. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2008; 8:837-9; PMID:18620511; http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2008.0049
  • Ganu MA, Ganu AS. Post-chikungunya chronic arthritis–our experience with DMARDs over two year follow up. J Assoc Physicians India 2011; 59:83-6; PMID:21751641
  • Ribera A, Degasne I, Jaffar Bandjee MC, Gasque P. ; Chronic rheumatic manifestations following chikungunya virus infection: clinical description and therapeutic considerations. Med Trop 2012; 72 Spec No:83-5; PMID:22693935
  • Bouquillard E, Combe B. A report of 21 cases of rheumatoid arthritis following Chikungunya fever. A mean follow-up of two years. Joint Bone Spine 2009; 76:654-7; PMID:19945329; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2009.08.005
  • Javelle E, Ribera A, Degasne I, Gauzere BA, Marimoutou C, Simon F. Specific management of post-chikungunya rheumatic disorders: a retrospective study of 159 cases in Reunion Island from 2006-2012. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003603; PMID:25760632; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003603
  • Delang L, Segura Guerrero N, Tas A, Querat G, Pastorino B, Froeyen M, Dallmeier K, Jochmans D, Herdewijn P, Bello F, et al. Mutations in the chikungunya virus non-structural proteins cause resistance to favipiravir (T-705), a broad-spectrum antiviral. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69:2770-84; PMID:24951535; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dku209
  • Dash PK, Tiwari M, Santhosh SR, Parida M, Lakshmana Rao PV. RNA interference mediated inhibition of Chikungunya virus replication in mammalian cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 376:718-22; PMID:18805396; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.09.040
  • Lam S, Chen KC, Ng MM, Chu JJ. Expression of plasmid-based shRNA against the E1 and nsP1 genes effectively silenced Chikungunya virus replication. PloS one 2012; 7:e46396; PMID:23056297; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0046396
  • Fong RH, Banik SS, Mattia K, Barnes T, Tucker D, Liss N, Lu K, Selvarajah S, Srinivasan S, Mabila M, et al. Exposure of epitope residues on the outer face of the chikungunya virus envelope trimer determines antibody neutralizing efficacy. J Virol 2014; 88:14364-79; PMID:25275138; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01943-14
  • Warter L, Lee CY, Thiagarajan R, Grandadam M, Lebecque S, Lin RT, Bertin-Maghit S, Ng LF, Abastado JP, Despres P, et al. Chikungunya virus envelope-specific human monoclonal antibodies with broad neutralization potency. J Immunol 2011; 186:3258-64; http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1003139
  • Lee CY, Kam YW, Fric J, Malleret B, Koh EG, Prakash C, Huang W, Lee WW, Lin C, Lin RT, et al. Chikungunya virus neutralization antigens and direct cell-to-cell transmission are revealed by human antibody-escape mutants. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002390; PMID:22144891; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002390
  • Fric J, Bertin-Maghit S, Wang CI, Nardin A, Warter L. Use of human monoclonal antibodies to treat Chikungunya virus infection. J Infect Dis 2013; 207:319-22; PMID:23125446; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jis674
  • Masrinoul P, Puiprom O, Tanaka A, Kuwahara M, Chaichana P, Ikuta K, Ramasoota P, Okabayashi T. Monoclonal antibody targeting chikungunya virus envelope 1 protein inhibits virus release. Virology 2014; 464-465:111-7; PMID:25063884
  • Goh LY, Hobson-Peters J, Prow NA, Gardner J, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Pyke AT, Suhrbier A, Hall RA. Neutralizing monoclonal antibodies to the E2 protein of chikungunya virus protects against disease in a mouse model. Clin Immunol 2013; 149:487-97; PMID:24239837; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clim.2013.10.004
  • Selvarajah S, Sexton NR, Kahle KM, Fong RH, Mattia KA, Gardner J, Lu K, Liss NM, Salvador B, Tucker DF, et al. A neutralizing monoclonal antibody targeting the acid-sensitive region in chikungunya virus E2 protects from disease. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2423; PMID:24069479; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002423
  • Goh LY, Hobson-Peters J, Prow NA, Gardner J, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Suhrbier A, Hall RA. Monoclonal antibodies specific for the capsid protein of chikungunya virus suitable for multiple applications. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:507-12; PMID:25480927; http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/jgv.0.000002
  • Hansel TT, Kropshofer H, Singer T, Mitchell JA, George AJ. The safety and side effects of monoclonal antibodies. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2010; 9:325-38; PMID:20305665; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrd3003
  • CDC. CHIKUNGUNYA information for vector control programs. 2015; http://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/pdfs/CHIKV_VectorControl.pdf (accessed July 9th, 2015)
  • Lang J, Wood SC. Development of orphan vaccines: an industry perspective. Emerg Infect Dis 1999; 5:749-56; PMID:10603207; http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid0506.990602
  • Kumar CJ, Baboo CA, Krishnan BU, Kumar A, Joy S, Jose T, Philip A, Sambasivaiah K, Hegde BM. The socioeconomic impact of the chikungunya viral epidemic in India. Open Med 2007; 1:e150-2; PMID:21673944
  • Seyler T, Hutin Y, Ramanchandran V, Ramakrishnan R, Manickam P, Murhekar M. Estimating the burden of disease and the economic cost attributable to chikungunya, Andhra Pradesh, India, 2005-2006. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2010; 104:133-8; PMID:19709705; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2009.07.014
  • Soumahoro MK, Boelle PY, Gauzere BA, Atsou K, Pelat C, Lambert B, La Ruche G, Gastellu-Etchegorry M, Renault P, Sarazin M, et al. The Chikungunya epidemic on La Reunion Island in 2005-2006: a cost-of-illness study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2011; 5:e1197; PMID:21695162; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001197
  • Vazquez-Prokopec GM, Chaves LF, Ritchie SA, Davis J, Kitron U. Unforeseen costs of cutting mosquito surveillance budgets. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2010; 4:e858; PMID:21049010; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000858
  • Roy CJ, Adams AP, Wang E, Plante K, Gorchakov R, Seymour RL, Vinet-Oliphant H, Weaver SC. Chikungunya vaccine candidate is highly attenuated and protects nonhuman primates against telemetrically monitored disease following a single dose. J Infect Dis 2014; 209:1891-9; PMID:24403555; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiu014
  • Hoke CH, Jr., Pace-Templeton J, Pittman P, Malinoski FJ, Gibbs P, Ulderich T, Mathers M, Fogtman B, Glass P, Vaughn DW. US Military contributions to the global response to pandemic chikungunya. Vaccine 2012; 30:6713-20; PMID:22940380; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.08.025
  • Wang E, Volkova E, Adams AP, Forrester N, Xiao SY, Frolov I, Weaver SC. Chimeric alphavirus vaccine candidates for chikungunya. Vaccine 2008; 26:5030-9; PMID:18692107; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.07.054
  • Wang D, Suhrbier A, Penn-Nicholson A, Woraratanadharm J, Gardner J, Luo M, Le TT, Anraku I, Sakalian M, Einfeld D, et al. A complex adenovirus vaccine against chikungunya virus provides complete protection against viraemia and arthritis. Vaccine 2011; 29:2803-9; PMID:21320541; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.01.108
  • Chattopadhyay A, Wang E, Seymour R, Weaver SC, Rose JK. A chimeric vesiculo/alphavirus is an effective alphavirus vaccine. J Virol 2013; 87:395-402; PMID:23077320; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01860-12
  • Garcia-Arriaza J, Cepeda V, Hallengard D, Sorzano CO, Kummerer BM, Liljestrom P, Esteban M. A novel poxvirus-based vaccine, MVA-CHIKV, is highly immunogenic and protects mice against chikungunya infection. J Virol 2014; 88:3527-47; PMID:24403588; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.03418-13
  • Hallengard D, Lum FM, Kummerer BM, Lulla A, Lulla V, Garcia-Arriaza J, Fazakerley JK, Roques P, Le Grand R, Merits A, et al. Prime-boost immunization strategies against Chikungunya virus. J Virol 2014; 88:13333-43; PMID:25210177; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01926-14
  • Tretyakova I, Hearn J, Wang E, Weaver S, Pushko P. DNA vaccine initiates replication of live attenuated chikungunya virus in vitro and elicits protective immune response in mice. J Infect Dis 2014; 209:1882-90; PMID:24585894; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiu114
  • Khan M, Dhanwani R, Rao PV, Parida M. Subunit vaccine formulations based on recombinant envelope proteins of Chikungunya virus elicit balanced Th1/Th2 response and virus-neutralizing antibodies in mice. Virus Res 2012; 167:236-46; PMID:22610133; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2012.05.004
  • Kumar M, Sudeep AB, Arankalle VA. Evaluation of recombinant E2 protein-based and whole-virus inactivated candidate vaccines against chikungunya virus. Vaccine 2012; 30:6142-9; PMID:22884660; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.07.072
  • Tiwari M, Parida M, Santhosh SR, Khan M, Dash PK, Rao PV. Assessment of immunogenic potential of Vero adapted formalin inactivated vaccine derived from novel ECSA genotype of Chikungunya virus. Vaccine 2009; 27:2513-22; PMID:19368794; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.02.062
  • Wagner JM, Pajerowski JD, Daniels CL, McHugh PM, Flynn JA, Balliet JW, Casimiro DR, Subramanian S. Enhanced production of Chikungunya virus-like particles using a high-pH adapted spodoptera frugiperda insect cell line. PloS one 2014; 9:e94401; PMID:24713807; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0094401
  • Ramsauer K, Schwameis M, Firbas C, Mullner M, Putnak RJ, Thomas SJ, Despres P, Tauber E, Jilma B, Tangy F. Immunogenicity, safety, and tolerability of a recombinant measles-virus-based chikungunya vaccine: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, active-comparator, first-in-man trial. Lancet Infect Dis 2015; 15:519-27; PMID:25739878; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(15)70043-5
  • Harrison VR, Eckels KH, Bartelloni PJ, Hampton C. Production and evaluation of a formalin-killed Chikungunya vaccine. J Immunol 1971; 107:643-7
  • Harrison VR, Marshall JD, Guilloud NB. The presence of antibody to Chikungunya and other serologically related viruses in the sera of sub-human primate imports to the United States. J Immunol 1967; 98:979-81
  • Harrison VR, Binn LN, Randall R. Comparative immunogenicities of chikungunya vaccines prepared in avian and mammalian tissues. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1967; 16:786-91; PMID:4965219
  • McClain DJ, Pittman PR, Ramsburg HH, Nelson GO, Rossi CA, Mangiafico JA, Schmaljohn AL, Malinoski FJ. Immunologic interference from sequential administration of live attenuated alphavirus vaccines. J Infect Dis 1998; 177:634-41; PMID:9498442; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/514240
  • Edelman R, Tacket CO, Wasserman SS, Bodison SA, Perry JG, Mangiafico JA. Phase II safety and immunogenicity study of live chikungunya virus vaccine TSI-GSD-218. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2000; 62:681-5; PMID:11304054
  • Chang LJ, Dowd KA, Mendoza FH, Saunders JG, Sitar S, Plummer SH, Yamshchikov G, Sarwar UN, Hu Z, Enama ME, et al. Safety and tolerability of chikungunya virus-like particle vaccine in healthy adults: a phase 1 dose-escalation trial. Lancet 2014; 384:2046-52; PMID:25132507; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61185-5
  • Tsetsarkin K, Higgs S, McGee CE, De Lamballerie X, Charrel RN, Vanlandingham DL. Infectious clones of Chikungunya virus (La Reunion isolate) for vector competence studies. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2006; 6:325-37; PMID:17187566; http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2006.6.325
  • Plante K, Wang E, Partidos CD, Weger J, Gorchakov R, Tsetsarkin K, Borland EM, Powers AM, Seymour R, Stinchcomb DT, et al. Novel chikungunya vaccine candidate with an IRES-based attenuation and host range alteration mechanism. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002142; PMID:21829348; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002142
  • Chu H, Das SC, Fuchs JF, Suresh M, Weaver SC, Stinchcomb DT, Partidos CD, Osorio JE. Deciphering the protective role of adaptive immunity to CHIKV/IRES a novel candidate vaccine against Chikungunya in the A129 mouse model. Vaccine 2013; 31:3353-60; PMID:23727003; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.05.059
  • Partidos CD, Paykel J, Weger J, Borland EM, Powers AM, Seymour R, Weaver SC, Stinchcomb DT, Osorio JE. Cross-protective immunity against o'nyong-nyong virus afforded by a novel recombinant chikungunya vaccine. Vaccine 2012; 30:4638-43; PMID:22583812; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.04.099
  • Metz SW, Martina BE, van den Doel P, Geertsema C, Osterhaus AD, Vlak JM, Pijlman GP. Chikungunya virus-like particles are more immunogenic in a lethal AG129 mouse model compared to glycoprotein E1 or E2 subunits. Vaccine 2013; 31:6092-6; PMID:24099875; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.09.045
  • Akahata W, Yang ZY, Andersen H, Sun S, Holdaway HA, Kong WP, Lewis MG, Higgs S, Rossmann MG, Rao S, et al. A virus-like particle vaccine for epidemic Chikungunya virus protects nonhuman primates against infection. Nat Med 2010; 16:334-8; PMID:20111039; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm.2105
  • Metz SW, Gardner J, Geertsema C, Le TT, Goh L, Vlak JM, Suhrbier A, Pijlman GP. Effective chikungunya virus-like particle vaccine produced in insect cells. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2124; PMID:23516657; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002124
  • Brandler S, Lucas-Hourani M, Moris A, Frenkiel MP, Combredet C, Fevrier M, Bedouelle H, Schwartz O, Despres P, Tangy F. Pediatric measles vaccine expressing a dengue antigen induces durable serotype-specific neutralizing antibodies to dengue virus. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2007; 1:e96; PMID:18160988; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000096
  • Brandler S, Ruffie C, Najburg V, Frenkiel MP, Bedouelle H, Despres P, Tangy F. Pediatric measles vaccine expressing a dengue tetravalent antigen elicits neutralizing antibodies against all four dengue viruses. Vaccine 2010; 28:6730-9; PMID:20688034; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.07.073
  • Despres P, Combredet C, Frenkiel MP, Lorin C, Brahic M, Tangy F. Live measles vaccine expressing the secreted form of the West Nile virus envelope glycoprotein protects against West Nile virus encephalitis. J Infect Dis 2005; 191:207-14; PMID:15609230; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/426824
  • Hilleman MR. Current overview of the pathogenesis and prophylaxis of measles with focus on practical implications. Vaccine 2001; 20:651-65; PMID:11738730; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0264-410X(01)00384-X
  • Wong-Chew RM, Beeler JA, Audet S, Santos JI. Cellular and humoral immune responses to measles in immune adults re-immunized with measles vaccine. J Med Virol 2003; 70:276-80; PMID:12696117; http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.10390
  • Rager-Zisman B, Bazarsky E, Skibin A, Chamney S, Belmaker I, Shai I, Kordysh E, Griffin DE. The effect of measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) immunization on the immune responses of previously immunized primary school children. Vaccine 2003; 21:2580-8; PMID:12744894; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0264-410X(03)00053-7
  • Seymour RL, Adams AP, Leal G, Alcorn MD, Weaver SC. A Rodent Model of Chikungunya Virus Infection in RAG1 -/- Mice, with Features of Persistence, for Vaccine Safety Evaluation. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003800; PMID:26115459; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003800
  • Petrovsky N, Aguilar JC. Vaccine adjuvants: current state and future trends. Immunol Cell Biol 2004; 82:488-96; PMID:15479434; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0818-9641.2004.01272.x
  • Manzoli L, De Vito C, Salanti G, D'Addario M, Villari P, Ioannidis JP. Meta-analysis of the immunogenicity and tolerability of pandemic influenza A 2009 (H1N1) vaccines. PloS one 2011; 6:e24384; PMID:21915319; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024384
  • Pellegrino P, Clementi E, Radice S. On vaccine's adjuvants and autoimmunity: Current evidence and future perspectives. Autoimmun Rev 2015; 14(10):880-8; PMID:26031899
  • Salazar-Gonzalez JA, Angulo C, Rosales-Mendoza S. Chikungunya virus vaccines: Current strategies and prospects for developing plant-made vaccines. Vaccine 2015; 33(31):3650-8; PMID:26073010
  • Yusibov V, Streatfield SJ, Kushnir N. Clinical development of plant-produced recombinant pharmaceuticals: vaccines, antibodies and beyond. Hum vaccin 2011; 7:313-21; PMID:21346417; http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/hv.7.3.14207
  • Pijlman GP. Enveloped virus-like particles as vaccines against pathogenic arboviruses. Biotechnol J 2015; 10:659-70; PMID:25692281; http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201400427
  • Metz SW, Pijlman GP. Arbovirus vaccines; opportunities for the baculovirus-insect cell expression system. J Invertebr pathol 2011; 107 Suppl:S16-30; PMID:21784227; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jip.2011.05.002
  • Vicente T, Roldao A, Peixoto C, Carrondo MJ, Alves PM. Large-scale production and purification of VLP-based vaccines. J Invertebr pathol 2011; 107 Suppl:S42-8; PMID:21784230; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jip.2011.05.004
  • Barrett AD, Gould EA. Antibody-mediated early death in vivo after infection with yellow fever virus. J Gen Virol 1986; 67 (Pt 11):2539-42; PMID:3783130; http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-67-11-2539
  • Lidbury BA, Mahalingam S. Specific ablation of antiviral gene expression in macrophages by antibody-dependent enhancement of Ross River virus infection. J Virol 2000; 74:8376-81; PMID:10954537; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.74.18.8376-8381.2000
  • Weaver SC, Osorio JE, Livengood JA, Chen R, Stinchcomb DT. Chikungunya virus and prospects for a vaccine. Expert Rev Vaccines 2012; 11:1087-101; PMID:23151166; http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/erv.12.84
  • Dowdle WR, Coleman MT, Mostow SR, Kaye HS, Schoenbaum SC. Inactivated influenza vaccines. 2. Laboratory indices of protection. Postgrad Med J 1973; 49:159-63; PMID:4803439; http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.49.569.159
  • Chen RT, Markowitz LE, Albrecht P, Stewart JA, Mofenson LM, Preblud SR, Orenstein WA. Measles antibody: reevaluation of protective titers. J Infect Dis 1990; 162:1036-42; PMID:2230231; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/162.5.1036
  • Ahola T, Courderc T, Ng LF, Hallengard D, Powers A, Lecuit M, Esteban M, Merits A, Roques P, Liljestrom P. Therapeutics and vaccines against chikungunya virus. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2015; 15:250-7; PMID:25897811; http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2014.1681
  • Fischer M, Staples JE, Arboviral Diseases Branch NCfE, Zoonotic Infectious Diseases CDC. Notes from the field: chikungunya virus spreads in the Americas - Caribbean and South America, 2013-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2014; 63:500-1; PMID:24898168
  • Levitt NH, Ramsburg HH, Hasty SE, Repik PM, Cole FE, Jr., Lupton HW. Development of an attenuated strain of chikungunya virus for use in vaccine production. Vaccine 1986; 4:157-62; PMID:3020820; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0264-410X(86)90003-4
  • Piper A, Ribeiro M, Smith KM, Briggs CM, Huitt E, Nanda K, Spears CJ, Quiles M, Cullen J, Thomas ME, et al. Chikungunya virus host range E2 transmembrane deletion mutants induce protective immunity against challenge in C57BL/6J mice. J Virol 2013; 87:6748-57; PMID:23552427; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.03357-12
  • Nakao E, Hotta S. Immunogenicity of purified, inactivated chikungunya virus in monkeys. Bull World Health Organ 1973; 48:559-62; PMID:4204490
  • Muthumani K, Lankaraman KM, Laddy DJ, Sundaram SG, Chung CW, Sako E, Wu L, Khan A, Sardesai N, Kim JJ, et al. Immunogenicity of novel consensus-based DNA vaccines against Chikungunya virus. Vaccine 2008; 26:5128-34; PMID:18471943; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.03.060
  • Mallilankaraman K, Shedlock DJ, Bao H, Kawalekar OU, Fagone P, Ramanathan AA, Ferraro B, Stabenow J, Vijayachari P, Sundaram SG, et al. A DNA vaccine against chikungunya virus is protective in mice and induces neutralizing antibodies in mice and nonhuman primates. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2011; 5:e928; PMID:21264351; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000928
  • Bao H, Ramanathan AA, Kawalakar O, Sundaram SG, Tingey C, Bian CB, Muruganandam N, Vijayachari P, Sardesai NY, Weiner DB, et al. Nonstructural protein 2 (nsP2) of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) enhances protective immunity mediated by a CHIKV envelope protein expressing DNA Vaccine. Viral immunology 2013; 26:75-83; PMID:23409931; http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/vim.2012.0061
  • Akahata W, Nabel GJ. A specific domain of the Chikungunya virus E2 protein regulates particle formation in human cells: implications for alphavirus vaccine design. J Virol 2012; 86:8879-83; PMID:22647698; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00370-12
  • Billeter MA, Naim HY, Udem SA. Reverse genetics of measles virus and resulting multivalent recombinant vaccines: applications of recombinant measles viruses. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2009; 329:129-62; PMID:19198565
  • Brandler S, Tangy F. Recombinant vector derived from live attenuated measles virus: potential for flavivirus vaccines. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2008; 31:271-91; PMID:17869338; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cimid.2007.07.012
  • Pal P, Fox JM, Hawman DW, Huang YJ, Messaoudi I, Kreklywich C, Denton M, Legasse AW, Smith PP, Johnson S, et al. Chikungunya viruses that escape monoclonal antibody therapy are clinically attenuated, stable, and not purified in mosquitoes. J Virol 2014; 88:8213-26; PMID:4135940; doi: 10.1128/JVI.01032-14
  • Gardner CL, Hritz J, Sun C, Vanlandingham DL, Song TY, Ghedin E, Higgs S, Klimstra WB, Ryman KD. Deliberate attenuation of chikungunya virus by adaptation to heparan sulfate-dependent infectivity: a model for rational arboviral vaccine design. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2719; PMID:3930508; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002719