References
- Hinman AR, Orenstein WA, Bloch AB, Bart KJ, Eddins DL, Amler RW, Kirby CD. Impact of measles in the United States. Rev Infect Dis. 1983;5:439–44. doi:10.1093/clinids/5.3.439
- Roush SW, Murphy TV, Vaccine-Preventable Disease Table Working Group. Historical comparisons of morbidity and mortality for vaccine-preventable disease in the United States. JAMA. 2007;298(18):2155–63. doi:10.1001/jama.298.18.2155
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Measles data and statistics. 2016 Apr 27 [accessed 2017 Sep 14]. https://www.cdc.gov/measles/downloads/measlesdataandstatsslideset.pdf
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Measles cases and outbreaks. 2017 Feb 13 [accessed 2017 Sep 14]. https://www.cdc.gov/measles/cases-outbreaks.html
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Measles cases in the United States reach 20-year high. 2014 May 29 [accessed 2017 Sep 14]. http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2014/p0529-measles.html
- Ruderfer D, Krilov LR. Vaccine-preventable outbreaks: still with us after all these years. Pediatr Ann. 2015;44(4):e76–81. doi:10.3928/00904481-20150410-08
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Achievements in public health, 1900–1999 Impact of vaccines universally recommended for children – United States, 1990–1998. MMWR. April 2, 1999;48(12):243–248. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00056803.htm
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Pertussis cases by Year (1922-2015). Available at https://www.cdc.gov/pertussis/surv-reporting/cases-by-year.html
- Phadke VK, Bednarczyk RK, Salmon DA, Omer SB. Association between vaccine refusal and vaccine-preventable diseases in the United States: A review of measles and pertussis. JAMA. 2016;315(11):1149–1158. http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/2503179
- Imdad A, Tserenpuntsag B, Blog DS, Halsey NA, Easton DE, Shaw J. Religious exemptions for immunization and risk of pertussis in New York State, 2000–2011. Pediatrics. 2013;132(1):37–43. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-3449
- Omer SB, Pan WK, Halsey NA. Nonmedical exemptions to school immunization requirements: secular trends and association of state policies with pertussis incidence. JAMA. 2006;296(14):1757–63. doi:10.1001/jama.296.14.1757
- Omer SB, Enger KS, Moulton LH, Halsey NA, Stokley S, Salmon DA. Geographic clustering of nonmedical exemptions to school immunization requirements and associations with geographic clustering of pertussis. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;168(12):1389–96. doi:10.1093/aje/kwn263
- Yang YT, Debold V. A longitudinal analysis of the effect of nonmedical exemption law and vaccine uptake on vaccine-targeted disease rates. Am J Public Health. 2014;104(2):371–7. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2013.301538
- Rohani P, Zhong X, King AA. Contact network structure explains the changing epidemiology of pertussis. Science. 2010;330:982–85. doi:10.1126/science.1194134
- Gambhir M, Clark TA, Cauchemez S, Tartof SY, Swerdlow DL, Ferguson NM. A change in vaccine efficacy and duration of protection explains recent rises in pertussis incidence in the United States. PLoS Comput Biol. 2015;11(4):e1004138. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004138
- Calandrillo SP. Vanishing vaccinations: Why are so many Americans opting out of vaccinating their children?. U Mich J L Reform. 2004;37(2):353–440. Available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=692903
- Reiss DR, Weithorn LA. Responding to the childhood vaccination crisis: legal frameworks and tools in the context of parental vaccine refusal. Buffalo L Rev. 2015;63(4):881–980. Available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=2574001
- Doucleff M. How Vaccine fears fueled the resurgence of preventable diseases. NPR (Jan. 25, 2014, 1:13 PM). http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2014/01/25/265750719/how-vaccine-fears-fueled-the-resurgence-of-preventable-diseases.
- Kata A. Anti-vaccine activists, Web 2.0, and the postmodern paradigm: An overview of tactics and tropes used online by the anti-vaccination movement. Vaccine. 2012;30(25):3778–1389. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22172504
- Maglione MA, Das L, Raaen L, Smith A, Chari R, Newberry S, Shanman R, Perry T, Goetz MB, Gidengil C. Safety of vaccines used for routine immunization of US children: a systematic review. Pediatrics. 2014;134(2):325–37. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-1079
- McNeil MM, Weintraub ES, Duffy J, Sukumaran L, Jacobsen SJ, Klein NP, DeStefano F. Risk of anaphylaxis after vaccination in children and adults. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2016;37(3):868–78
- Blank N, Caplan AL, Constable C. Exempting schoolchildren from immunizations: states with few barriers had highest rates of nonmedical exemptions. Health Aff. 2013;32(7):1282–90. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2013.0239
- Omer SB, Richards JL, Ward M, Bednarczyk RA. Vaccination policies and rates of exemption from immunization, 2005–2011. N Eng J Med. 2012;367(12):1170–1. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1209037
- Feikin DR, Lezotte DC, Hamman RF, Salmon DA, Chen RT, Hoffman RE. Individual and community risks of measles and pertussis associated with personal exemptions to immunization. JAMA. 2000;284(24):3145–50. doi:10.1001/jama.284.24.3145
- Glanz JM, McClure DL, Magid DJ, Daley MF, France EK, Salmon DA, Hambidge SJ. Parental refusal of pertussis vaccination is associated with an increased risk of pertussis infection in children. Pediatrics. 2009;123(6):1446–51. http://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-2150
- Salmon DA, Haber M, Gangarosa EJ, Phillips L, Smith NJ, Chen RT. Health consequences of religious and philosophical exemptions from immunization laws: individual and societal risk of measles. JAMA. 1999;282(1):47–53. doi:10.1001/jama.282.1.47
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiology and prevention of vaccine-preventable diseases. 13th ed. Washington (DC): Public Health Foundation; 2015. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/downloads/meas.pdf
- Fine P, Eames K, Heymann DL. “Herd immunity”: a rough guide. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(7):911–6. doi:10.1093/cid/cir007
- Fine P. Herd immunity: history, theory, practice. Epidemiol Rev. 1993;15(2):265–302. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a036121
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Glossary. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/terms/glossary.html#commimmunity
- Glanz JM, McClure DL, Magid DJ, Daley MF, France EK, Hambidge SJ. Parental refusal of varicella vaccination and the associated risk of varicella infection in children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2010;164(1):66–70. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.244
- Omer SB, Salmon DA, Orenstein WA, deHart MP, Halsey N. Vaccine refusal, mandatory immunization, and the risks of vaccine-preventable diseases. N Eng J Med. 2009;360(19):1981–8. doi:10.1056/NEJMsa0806477
- Parker AA, Staggs W, Dayan GH, Ortega-Sánchez IR, Rota PA, Lowe L, Boardman P, Teclaw R, Graves C, LeBaron CW. Implications of a 2005 measles outbreak in Indiana for sustained elimination of measles in the United States. N Eng J Med. 2006;355(5):447–55. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa060775
- Fiebelkorn AP, Redd SB, Gallagher K, Rota PA, Rota J, Bellini W, Seward J. Measles in the United States during the postelimination era. J Infect Dis. 2010;202(10):1520–8. doi:10.1086/656914
- Sugerman DE, Barskey AE, Delea MG, Ortega-Sanchez IR, Bi D, Ralston KJ, Rota PA, Waters-Montijo K, Lebaron CW. Measles outbreak in a highly vaccinated population, San Diego, 2008: role of the intentionally undervaccinated. Pediatrics. 2010;125(4):747–55. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-1653
- Feikin DR, Lezotte DC, Hamman RF, Salmon DA, Chen RT, Hoffman RE. Individual and community risks of measles and pertussis associated with personal exemptions to immunization. JAMA. 2000;284(24):3145–50. doi:10.1001/jama.284.24.3145
- Richards JL, Wagenaar BH, Van Otterloo J, Gondalia R, Atwell JE, Kleinbaum DG, Salmon DA, Omer SB. Nonmedical exemptions to immunization requirements in California: a 16-year longitudinal analysis of trends and associated community factors. Vaccine. 2013;31(29):3009–13. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.04.053
- Salmon DA, Moulton LH, Omer SB, DeHart MP, Stokley S, Halsey NA. Factors associated with refusal of childhood vaccines among parents of school-aged children: a case-control study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2005;159(5):470–6. doi:10.1001/archpedi.159.5.470
- Thompson JW, Tyson S, Card-Higginson P, Jacobs RF, Wheeler JG, Simpson P, Bost JE, Ryan KW, Salmon DA. Impact of addition of philosophical exemptions on childhood immunization rates. Am J Prev Med. 2007;32(3):194–201. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2006.10.014
- Hodge JG, Gostin LO. School vaccination requirements: historical, social, and legal perspectives. KY Law J. 2001–2002;90(4):831–90. Available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=362280
- Diekema DS. Personal belief exemptions from school vaccination requirements. Annu Rev Public Health. 2014;35:275–92. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182452
- Malone KM, Hinman AR. Vaccination mandates: the public health imperative and individual rights. In: Goodman RA, Rothstein MA, Hoffman RE, Lopez W, Matthews GW, editors. Law in public health practice. NY: Oxford University Press; 2003. p. 262–84. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195301489.003.0014
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. State school immunization requirements and vaccine exemption laws. 2015 Mar 27 [accessed 2017 Sep 14]. https://www.cdc.gov/phlp/docs/school-vaccinations.pdf
- Immunization Action Coalition. State information: state mandates on immunization and vaccine-preventable diseases. 2017 Feb 24 [accessed 2017 Sep 14]. http://www.immunize.org/laws
- National Conference of State Legislatures. States with religious and philosophical exemptions from school immunization requirements. 10/20/2017 [accessed 2017 Nov 30]. http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/health/school-immunization-exemption-state-laws.aspx
- Brown v. Stone, 378 So. 2d 218 (Miss. 1979).
- Workman v. Mingo Cty. Bd. of Educ., 419 F. App'x 348 (4th Cir. 2011).
- Whitlow v. Cal. Dep't of Educ., 203 F. Supp. 3d 1079 (S.D. Cal. 2016).
- Reiss DR. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain: use and abuse of religious exemptions from school immunization requirements. Hastings L J. 2014;65(6):1551–602. Available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=2396903
- Caviezel v. Great Neck Pub. Sch., 701 F. Supp. 2d 414 (E.D.N.Y. 2010).
- Turner v. Liverpool Cent. Sch., 186 F. Supp. 2d 187 (N.D.N.Y. 2002).
- Lillvis DF, Kirkland A, Frick A. Power and persuasion in the vaccine debates: an analysis of political efforts and outcomes in the United States, 1998–2012. Milbank Q. 2014;92(3):475–508. doi:10.1111/1468-0009.12075
- Ark. Code Ann. §6-18-702(d)(4)(A) (2017).
- Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 15–873(A)(1) (2017).
- Idaho Code Ann. § 39–4802(2) (2017).
- Cal. Health & Safety Code § 120365(b)(1) (2016).
- Wash. Admin. Code § 246-105-050 (2017).
- Jacobson v. Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11 (1905).
- Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296 (1940).
- Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc., 134 S. Ct. 2751 (2014).
- Hamilton MA. Employment Division v. Smith at the Supreme Court: the justices, the litigants, and the doctrinal discourse. Cardozo L Rev. 2011;32(5):1671–99. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1839963
- McClain LC. Religious and political virtues and values in congruence or conflict?: on Smith, Bob Jones University, and Christian Legal Society. Cardozo L Rev. 2011;32(5):1959–2007. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1833518
- Emp't Div. v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872 (1990).
- The Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993, Pub. L. No. 103–141, 107 Stat. 1488 (Nov. 16, 1993), codified at 42 U.S.C. § 2000bb through 42 U.S.C. § 2000bb-4 (2016).
- City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507 (1997).
- Chemerinsky E. Do state religious freedom restoration acts violate the Establishment Clause or separation of powers?. UC Davis L Rev. 1999;32:645–64. http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/faculty_scholarship/1383
- Loewy AH. Rejecting both Smith and RFRA. Tex Tech L Rev. 2011;44:231–8. http://hdl.handle.net/10601/1913
- Lund CC. Religious liberty after Gonzales: a look at state RFRAs. S D L Rev. 2010;55:466–97. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1666268
- Weithorn LA. Envisioning second-order change in America's responses to troubled and troublesome youth. Hofstra L Rev. 2005;33(4):1305–1506. Available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=989836
- Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390 (1923).
- Pierce v. Soc'y of Sisters, 268 U.S. 510 (1925).
- Davis SM, Scott ES, Wadlington W, Weithorn LA. Children in the legal system. 5th ed. St. Paul, MN: Foundation Press; 2014.
- Prince v. Massachusetts, 321 U.S. 158 (1944).
- Cal. Welf. & Inst. Code § 300(b)(1) (2017).
- Child Welfare Information Gateway. Definitions of child abuse and neglect. 2016 Apr [accessed 2017 Sep 14]. https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubPDFs/define.pdf
- Dwyer JG. Spiritual treatment exemptions to child medical neglect laws: what we outsiders should think. Notre Dame L Rev. 2000;76:147–77. Available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=2681162
- Rosato JL. Putting square pegs in a round hole: procedural due process and the effect of faith healing exemptions on the prosecution of faith healing parents. USF L Rev. 1994;29(1):43–119. Available at http://works.bepress.com/jennifer_rosato/6/
- Howell SD. Religious treatment exemption statutes: betrayest thou me with a statute?. Scholar. 2012;14:945–85. Available at http://works.bepress.com/shirley_howell/4/
- Cruzan v. Dir., Mo. Dep't of Health, 497 U.S. 261 (1990).
- Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973).
- Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972).
- San Antonio Indep. Sch. Dist. v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 (1973).
- Education Commission of the States. 50-state review: constitutional obligations for public education. 2016 Mar [accessed 2017 Sep 14]. https://www.ecs.org/ec-content/uploads/2016-Constitutional-obligations-for-public-education-1.pdf
- Reed DS. Twenty-five years after Rodriguez: school finance litigation and the impact of the new judicial federalism. L Soc'y Rev. 1998;32(1):175–220. Available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/827752
- Reiss DR. Vaccines, school mandates, and California's right to education. UCLA L Rev Discourse. 2015;63:98–118. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2649227
- French v. Davidson, 143 Cal. 658 (1904).
- Viemeister v. White, 179 N.Y. 235 (1904).
- Mello MM, Studdert DM, Parmet WE. Shifting vaccination politics–the end of personal-belief exemptions in California. N Eng J Med. 2015;373(9):785–7. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1508701
- Nathanson D. Herd protection v. vaccine abstention: potential conflict between school vaccine requirements and state religious freedom restoration acts. Am J L Med. 2016;42:621–41. doi:10.1177/0098858816658282
- Ariz. Rev. Stat. § 1–601 (2017).
- Reiss DR. Decoupling vaccine laws. 58 B C L Rev E Supp 9. 2017;58(6):9–17. Available at http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/bclr/vol58/iss6/2
- Beauchamp TL, Childress JF. Principles of biomedical ethics. 6th ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2009.
- Beckstrom DC. Balancing civic values and parents’ Free Exercise rights. Gonz L Rev. 2010;45(1):149–88. Available at https://www.law.gonzaga.edu/law-review/files/2011/01/45-Gonz-L-Rev-149.pdf
- Hutchison WR. Religious pluralism in America: the contentious history of a founding ideal. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; 2003.
- Gostin LO, Burris S, Lazzarini Z. The law and the public's health: a study of infectious disease law in the United States. Columbia L Rev. 1999;99(1):59–128. Available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=139923
- Childress JF, Faden RR, Gaare RD, Gostin LO, Kahn J, Bonnie RJ, Kass NE, Mastroianni AC, Moreno JD, Nieburg P. Public health ethics: mapping the terrain. J L Med Ethics. 2002;30(2):170–8. doi:10.1111/j.1748-720X.2002.tb00384.x
- Hagood EA, Herlihy SM. Addressing heterogeneous parental concerns about vaccination with a multiple-source model: a parent and educator perspective. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2013;9(8):1790–4. doi:10.4161/hv.24888
- Nuffield Council on Bioethics. Public health: ethical issues. 2007 Nov [accessed 2017 Sep 14]. http://nuffieldbioethics.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Public-health-ethical-issues.pdf
- Offit PA. Bad faith: when religious belief undermines modern medicine. New York, NY: Basic Books; 2015.
- Anderson v. State, 65 S.E.2d 848 (Ga. Ct. App. 1951).
- State v. Drew, 192 A. 629 (N.H. 1937).
- Cal. Health & Safety Code § 120365(e) (2016).
- Phillips v. City of N.Y., 775 F.3d 538 (2d Cir. 2015).
- Caplan AL, Hoke D, Diamond NJ, Karshenboyem V. Free to choose but liable for the consequences: should non-vaccinators be penalized for the harm they do?. J L Med Ethics. 2012;40(3):606–11. doi:10.1111/j.1748-720X.2012.00693.x
- Reiss DR. Compensating the victims of failure to vaccinate: what are the options?. Cornell J Law Public Policy. 2014;23(3):595–633. Available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=2317548
- Moser CA, Reiss D, Schwartz RL. Funding the costs of disease outbreaks caused by non-vaccination. J L Med Ethics. 2015;43(3):633–47. Available at https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2445610
- Fung A, Graham M, Well D. Full disclosure: the perils and promise of transparency. 1st ed. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press; 2007.
- Shots for School. Child care/school lookup: how well-vaccinated is your child's child care facility/school. 2015 [accessed 2017 Sep 14]. http://www.shotsforschool.org/lookup/
- Sadaf A, Richards JL, Glanz J, Salmon DA, Omer SB. A systematic review of interventions for reducing parental vaccine refusal and vaccine hesitancy. Vaccine. 2013;31(40):4293–304. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.07.013
- Yang YT, Silverman RD. Legislative prescriptions for controlling nonmedical vaccine exemptions. JAMA. 2015;313(3):247–8. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.16286
- Silverman RD. No more kidding around: restructuring non-medical childhood immunization exemptions to ensure public health protection. Ann Health L. 2003;12(2):277–94. Available at http://lawecommons.luc.edu/annals/vol12/iss2/7/
- 42 U.S.C.S. § 300gg-13 (2017).
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. About VFC; 2016 Feb 18 [accessed 2017 Sep 14]. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/programs/vfc/about/index.html
- The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. Vaccine education center. 2017 May 19 [accessed 2017 Sep 14]. http://vec.chop.edu/service/vaccine-education-center/home.html
- American Academy of Pediatrics. Immunization. 2017 [accessed 2017 Sep 14]. http://www2.aap.org/immunization