Promise and challenges in the development of COVID-19 vaccines

References

• Johns Hopkins University. COVID-19 dashboard by the center for systems science and engineering (CSSE). [accessed 2020 May 18]. https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. COVID 19 public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC): global research and innovation forum: towards a research roadmap; 2020 Feb 10–11 [accessed 2020 May 18]. https://www.who.int/blueprint/priority-diseases/key-action/Global_Research_Forum_FINAL_VERSION_for_web_14_feb_2020.pdf?ua=1.
   Google Scholar
• Le T T, Andreadakis Z, Kumar A, Gomez Roman R, Tollefsen S, Saville M, Mayhew S. The COVID-19 vaccine development landscape. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2020;19(5):305–06. doi:10.1038/d41573-020-00073-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen J. Vaccine designers take first shots at COVID-19. Science. 2020;368(6486):14–16. doi:10.1126/science.368.6486.14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amanat F, Krammer F. SARS-CoV-2 vaccines: status report. Immunity. 2020;52(4):583–89. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2020.03.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen WH, Strych U, Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME. The SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine pipeline: an overview. Curr Trop Med Rep. 2020:1–4. doi:10.1007/s40475-020-00201-6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dhama K, Sharun K, Tiwari R, Dadar M, Malik YS, Singh KP, Chaicumpa W. COVID-19, an emerging coronavirus infection: advances and prospects in designing and developing vaccines, immunotherapeutics, and therapeutics. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2020:1–7. doi:10.1080/21645515.2020.1735227.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang J, Zeng H, Gu J, Li H, Zheng L, Zou Q. Progress and Prospects on Vaccine Development against SARS-CoV-2. Vaccines (Basel). 2020:8. doi:10.3390/vaccines8020153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu C, Zhou Q, Li Y, Garner LV, Watkins SP, Carter LJ, Smoot J, Gregg AC, Daniels AD, Jervey S, et al. Research and development on therapeutic agents and vaccines for COVID-19 and related human coronavirus diseases. ACS Cent Sci. 2020;6(3):315–31. doi:10.1021/acscentsci.0c00272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Kruger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, Schiergens TS, Herrler G, Wu N-H, Nitsche A, et al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell. 2020;181(2):271–80 e8. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wrapp D, Wang N, Corbett KS, Goldsmith JA, Hsieh CL, Abiona O, Graham BS, McLellan JS. Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. Science. 2020;367(6483):1260–63. doi:10.1126/science.abb2507.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar S, Maurya VK, Prasad AK, Bhatt MLB, Saxena SK. Structural, glycosylation and antigenic variation between 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) and SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV). Virusdisease. 2020;31(1):13–21. doi:10.1007/s13337-020-00571-5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shang J, Ye G, Shi K, Wan Y, Luo C, Aihara H, Geng Q, Auerbach A, Li F. Structural basis of receptor recognition by SARS-CoV-2. Nature. 2020;581(7807):221–24. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2179-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tortorici MA, Walls AC, Lang Y, Wang C, Li Z, Koerhuis D, Boons G-J, Bosch B-J, Rey FA, de Groot RJ, et al. Structural basis for human coronavirus attachment to sialic acid receptors. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2019;26(6):481–89. doi:10.1038/s41594-019-0233-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan M, Wu NC, Zhu X, Lee CD, So RTY, Lv H, Mok CKP, Wilson IA. A highly conserved cryptic epitope in the receptor binding domains of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV. Science. 2020;368(6491):630–33. doi:10.1126/science.abb7269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vankadari N, Wilce JA. Emerging WuHan (COVID-19) coronavirus: glycan shield and structure prediction of spike glycoprotein and its interaction with human CD26. Emerging Microbes Infect. 2020;9(1):601–04. doi:10.1080/22221751.2020.1739565.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grifoni A, Sidney J, Zhang Y, Scheuermann RH, Peters B, Sette A. A sequence homology and bioinformatic approach can predict candidate targets for immune responses to SARS-CoV-2. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;27(4):671–80 e2. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2020.03.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ong E, Wong MU, Huffman A, He Y. COVID-19 coronavirus vaccine design using reverse vaccinology and machine learning. bioRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.03.20.000141.
   Google Scholar
• Chen T, Wu D, Chen H, Yan W, Yang D, Chen G, Ma K, Xu D, Yu H, Wang H, et al. Clinical characteristics of 113 deceased patients with coronavirus disease 2019: retrospective study. BMJ. 2020;368:m1091. doi:10.1136/bmj.m1091.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dong C, Ni L, Ye F, Chen M-L, Feng Y, Deng Y-Q, Zhao H, Wei P, Ge J, Li X, et al. Characterization of anti-viral immunity in recovered individuals infected by SARS-CoV-2. medRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.03.17.20036640.
   Google Scholar
• Zheng HY, Zhang M, Yang CX, Zhang N, Wang XC, Yang XP, Dong X-Q, Zheng Y-T. Elevated exhaustion levels and reduced functional diversity of T cells in peripheral blood may predict severe progression in COVID-19 patients. Cell Mol Immunol. 2020;17(5):541–43. doi:10.1038/s41423-020-0401-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang C, Liu L, Liu WJ, Zhou C, Chen L, Xu Z, Xing L, Cao M, Wu W, Peng L, et al. Elevated plasma level of selective cytokines in COVID-19 patients reflect viral load and lung injury. Natl Sci Rev. 2020. doi:10.1093/nsr/nwaa037.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497–506. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deng SQ, Peng HJ. Characteristics of and public health responses to the coronavirus disease 2019 outbreak in China. J Clin Med. 2020:9. doi:10.3390/jcm9020575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duan K, Liu B, Li C, Zhang H, Yu T, Qu J, Zhou M, Chen L, Meng S, Hu Y, et al. Effectiveness of convalescent plasma therapy in severe COVID-19 patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020;117(17):9490–96. doi:10.1073/pnas.2004168117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casadevall A, Pirofski LA. The convalescent sera option for containing COVID-19. J Clin Invest. 2020;130(4):1545–48. doi:10.1172/JCI138003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao J, Yuan Q, Wang H, Liu W, Liao X, Su Y, Wang X, Yuan J, Li T, Li J, et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients of novel coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis. 2020. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa344.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Netea MG, Joosten LA, Latz E, Mills KH, Natoli G, Stunnenberg HG, O’Neill LAJ, Xavier RJ. Trained immunity: A program of innate immune memory in health and disease. Science. 2016;352:aaf1098. doi:10.1126/science.aaf1098.
   Google Scholar
• Sala G, Chakraborti R, Ota A, Miyakawa T. Association of BCG vaccination policy with prevalence and mortality of COVID-19. medRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.03.30.20048165.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shet A, Ray D, Malavige N, Santosham M, Bar-Zeev N. Differential COVID-19-attributable mortality and BCG vaccine use in countries. medRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.04.01.20049478.
   Google Scholar
• Szigeti R, Kellermayer D, Kellermayer R. BCG protects against COVID-19? A word of caution. medRxiv. 2020. doi:10.1101/2020.04.09.20056903.
   Google Scholar
• Liu L, Wei Q, Lin Q, Fang J, Wang H, Kwok H, Tang H, Nishiura K, Peng J, Tan Z, et al. Anti-spike IgG causes severe acute lung injury by skewing macrophage responses during acute SARS-CoV infection. JCI Insight. 2019;4. doi:10.1172/jci.insight.123158.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao J, Zhao J, Van Rooijen N, Perlman S, Gale M. Evasion by stealth: inefficient immune activation underlies poor T cell response and severe disease in SARS-CoV-infected mice. PLoS Pathog. 2009;5(10):e1000636. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000636.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim YI, Kim SG, Kim SM, Kim EH, Park SJ, Yu KM, Chang J-H, Kim EJ, Lee S, Casel MAB, et al. Infection and rapid transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Ferrets. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;27(5):704–9 e2. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2020.03.023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan JF, Zhang AJ, Yuan S, Poon VK, Chan CC, Lee AC, Chan W, Fan Z, Tsoi H, Wen L, et al. Simulation of the clinical and pathological manifestations of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in golden Syrian hamster model: implications for disease pathogenesis and transmissibility. Clin Infect Dis. 2020. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa325.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eyal N, Lipsitch M, Smith PG. Human challenge studies to accelerate coronavirus vaccine licensure. J Infect Dis. 2020;221(11):1752–56. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiaa152.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang S. Don’t rush to deploy COVID-19 vaccines and drugs without sufficient safety guarantees. Nature. 2020;579(7799):321. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-00751-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar