Coronavirus disease 2019—Historical context, virology, pathogenesis, immunotherapy, and vaccine development

References

• Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, Zhu Y, Li B, Huang CL, Chen HD, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature. 2020;579:270–73. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, Chen Y-M, Wang W, Song Z-G, Hu Y, Tao Z-W, Tian J-H, Pei -Y-Y, et al. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature. 2020;579(7798):265–69. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2008-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of V. The species severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2. Nat Microbiol. 2020; 5(4):536-544.  doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-020-0695-z.
   Google Scholar
• Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, Zhao X, Huang B, Shi W, Lu R, et al. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:727–33.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. Situation reports. Available from: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200518-covid-19-sitrep-119.pdf?sfvrsn=4bd9de25_4 [ accessed on 19 May 2020].
   Google Scholar
• Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395:497–506.
   Google Scholar
• Xu Z, Shi L, Wang Y, Zhang J, Huang L, Zhang C, Liu S, Zhao P, Liu H, Zhu L, et al. Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8:420–22.
   Google Scholar
• Kruse RL. Therapeutic strategies in an outbreak scenario to treat the novel coronavirus originating in Wuhan, China. F1000Res. 2020;9:72.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gautret P, Lagier JC, Parola P, Hoang VT, Meddeb L, Sevestre J, et al. Clinical and microbiological effect of a combination of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin in 80 COVID-19 patients with at least a six-day follow up: a pilot observational study. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2020;34:101663.
   Google Scholar
• Cui J, Li F, Shi ZL. Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2019;17:181–92. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song Z, Xu Y, Bao L, Zhang L, Yu P, Qu Y, Zhu H, Zhao W, Han Y, Qin C. From SARS to MERS, thrusting coronaviruses into the spotlight. Viruses. 2019;11(1):59.
   Google Scholar
• Weiss SR, Navas-Martin S. Coronavirus pathogenesis and the emerging pathogen severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2005;69:635–64. doi:https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.69.4.635-664.2005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan JF, Kok KH, Zhu Z, Chu H, To KK, Yuan S, Yuen K-Y. Genomic characterization of the 2019 novel human-pathogenic coronavirus isolated from a patient with atypical pneumonia after visiting Wuhan. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9:221–36. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/22221751.2020.1719902.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar S, Stecher G, Li M, Knyaz C, Tamura K. MEGA X: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis across computing platforms. Mol Biol Evol. 2018;35:1547–49. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msy096.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Letunic I, Bork P. Interactive tree of life (iTOL) v3: an online tool for the display and annotation of phylogenetic and other trees. Nucleic Acids Res. 2016;44:W242–5. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkw290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McIntosh K, Dees JH, Becker WB, Kapikian AZ, Chanock RM. Recovery in tracheal organ cultures of novel viruses from patients with respiratory disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1967;57:933–40. doi:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.57.4.933.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML, Hoorn B. Cultivation of “difficult” viruses from patients with common colds. Br Med J. 1968;1:606–10. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.5592.606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim YX, Ng YL, Tam JP, Liu DX. Human coronaviruses: a review of virus-host interactions. Diseases. 2016;4(3):26.
   Google Scholar
• Devaux CA, Rolain JM, Raoult D. ACE2 receptor polymorphism: susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2, hypertension, multi-organ failure, and COVID-19 disease outcome. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2020;53(3):425–35. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmii.2020.04.015.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kuiken T, Fouchier RA, Schutten M, Rimmelzwaan GF, van Amerongen G, van Riel D, Laman JD, de Jong T, van Doornum G, Lim W, et al. Newly discovered coronavirus as the primary cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Lancet. 2003;362(9380):263–70. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13967-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li W, Shi Z, Yu M, Ren W, Smith C, Epstein JH, Wang H, Crameri G, Hu Z, Zhang H, et al. Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses. Science. 2005;310:676–79. doi:https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1118391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li W, Moore MJ, Vasilieva N, Sui J, Wong SK, Berne MA, Somasundaran M, Sullivan JL, Luzuriaga K, Greenough TC, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus. Nature. 2003;426(6965):450–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Hoek L, Pyrc K, Jebbink MF, Vermeulen-Oost W, Berkhout RJ, Wolthers KC, Wertheim-van Dillen PME, Kaandorp J, Spaargaren J, Berkhout B, et al. Identification of a new human coronavirus. Nat Med. 2004;10(4):368–73. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milewska A, Nowak P, Owczarek K, Szczepanski A, Zarebski M, Hoang A, Berniak K, Wojarski J, Zeglen S, Baster Z, et al. Entry of Human coronavirus NL63 into the cell. J Virol. 2018;92(3):e01933-17.
   Google Scholar
• Oosterhof L, Christensen CB, Sengelov H. Fatal lower respiratory tract disease with human corona virus NL63 in an adult haematopoietic cell transplant recipient. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2010;45:1115–16. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/bmt.2009.292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konca C, Korukluoglu G, Tekin M, Almis H, Bucak İH, Uygun H, Altas AB, Bayrakdar F. The first infant death associated with human coronavirus NL63 infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2017;36:231–33. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/INF.0000000000001390.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tao Y, Shi M, Chommanard C, Queen K, Zhang J, Markotter W, Kuzmin IV, Holmes EC, Tong S. Surveillance of Bat coronaviruses in Kenya identifies relatives of human coronaviruses NL63 and 229E and their recombination history. J Virol. 2017;91(5):e01953-16.
   Google Scholar
• Hofmann H, Pyrc K, van der Hoek L, Geier M, Berkhout B, Pohlmann S. Human coronavirus NL63 employs the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus receptor for cellular entry. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102:7988–93. doi:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0409465102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woo PC, Lau SK, Chu CM, Chan KH, Tsoi HW, Huang Y, Wong BH, Poon RW, Cai JJ, Luk WK, et al. Characterization and complete genome sequence of a novel coronavirus, coronavirus HKU1, from patients with pneumonia. J Virol. 2005;79:884–95. doi:https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.79.2.884-895.2005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woo PC, Lau SK, Tsoi HW, Huang Y, Poon RW, Chu CM, Lee RA, Luk WK, Wong GK, Wong BH, et al. Clinical and molecular epidemiological features of coronavirus HKU1-associated community-acquired pneumonia. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:1898–907. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/497151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaki AM, van Boheemen S, Bestebroer TM, Osterhaus AD, Fouchier RA. Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:1814–20. doi:https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1211721.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Middle WHO. East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) factsheet. 2019. [ Available from: https://www.who.int/emergencies/mers-cov/en/ accessed 26th March 2020]. 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Zumla A, Hui DS, Perlman S. Middle East respiratory syndrome. Lancet. 2015;386:995–1007. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60454-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raj VS, Mou H, Smits SL, Dekkers DH, Muller MA, Dijkman R, Muth D, Demmers JAA, Zaki A, Fouchier RAM, et al. Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 is a functional receptor for the emerging human coronavirus-EMC. Nature. 2013;495(7440):251–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freund Y. The challenge of emergency medicine facing the COVID-19 outbreak. Eur J Emerg Med. 2020;27(3):155. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/MEJ.0000000000000699.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai J, Ma S, Wang Y, Cai Z, Hu J, Wei N, Wu J, Du H, Chen T, Li R, et al. Factors associated with mental health outcomes among health care workers exposed to coronavirus disease 2019. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3:e203976. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3976.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zastrow M. South Korea is reporting intimate details of COVID-19 cases: has it helped? Nature. 2020.doi:10.1038/d41586-020-00740-y.
   Google Scholar
• Pan X, Ojcius DM, Gao T, Li Z, Pan C, Pan C. Lessons learned from the 2019-nCoV epidemic on prevention of future infectious diseases. Microbes Infect. 2020;22:86–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, Schiergens TS, Herrler G, Wu NH, Nitsche A, et al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell. 2020;181(2):271-280.e8.
   Google Scholar
• Munster VJ, Koopmans M, van Doremalen N, van Riel D, de Wit E. Novel Coronavirus A. Emerging in China – key questions for impact assessment. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:692–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamming I, Timens W, Bulthuis ML, Lely AT, Navis G, van Goor H. Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS coronavirus. A first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis. J Pathol. 2004;203:631–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wrapp D, Wang N, Corbett KS, Goldsmith JA, Hsieh CL, Abiona O, Graham BS, McLellan JS. Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. Science. 2020;367:1260–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu A, Peng Y, Huang B, Ding X, Wang X, Niu P, Meng J, Zhu Z, Zhang Z, Wang J, et al. Genome composition and divergence of the Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) originating in China. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;27:325–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walls AC, Park YJ, Tortorici MA, Wall A, McGuire AT. Veesler D. Structure, function, and antigenicity of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Glycoprotein. Cell. 2020;181(2):281-292.e6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourgonje AR, Abdulle AE, Timens W, Hillebrands JL, Navis GJ, Gordijn SJ, Bolling MC, Dijkstra G, Voors AA, Osterhaus AD, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2), SARS-CoV-2 and pathophysiology of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). J Pathol. 2020;10.1002/path.5471. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/path.5471.
   Google Scholar
• Kupferschmidt K, Cohen J. Race to find COVID-19 treatments accelerates. Science. 2020;367:1412–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anthony SJ, Johnson CK, Greig DJ, Kramer S, Che X, Wells H, Hicks AL, Joly DO, Wolfe ND, Daszak P, et al. Global patterns in coronavirus diversity. Virus Evol. 2017;3:vex 012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lam TT, Jia N, Zhang YW, Shum MH, Jiang JF, Zhu HC, Tong YG, Shi YX, Ni XB, Liao YS, et al. Identifying SARS-CoV-2 related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins. Nature. 2020. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2169-0
   Google Scholar
• Lam TT, Jia N, Zhang YW, Shum MH, Jiang JF, Zhu HC, Tong YG, Shi YX, Ni XB, Liao YS, et al. Identification of 2019-nCoV related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins in southern China. BioRxiv. 2020. 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Andersen KG, Rambaut A, Lipkin WI, Holmes EC, Garry RF. The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2. Nat Med. 2020; 26(4):450-452.
   Google Scholar
• Yuen KS, Ye ZW, Fung SY, Chan CP, Jin DY. SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19: the most important research questions. Cell Biosci. 2020;10:40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qian G, Yang N, Ma AHY, Wang L, Li G, Chen X, Chen X. A COVID-19 transmission within a family cluster by presymptomatic infectors in China. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;ciaa316. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa316.
   Google Scholar
• Mizumoto K, Kagaya K, Zarebski A, Chowell G. Estimating the asymptomatic proportion of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases on board the Diamond Princess cruise ship, Yokohama, Japan, 2020. Euro Surveill. 2020;2000180. doi:https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.10.2000180.
   Google Scholar
• Zou L, Ruan F, Huang M, Liang L, Huang H, Hong Z, Yu J, Kang M, Song Y, Xia J, et al. SARS-CoV-2 viral load in upper respiratory specimens of infected patients. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1177–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Day M. Covid-19: identifying and isolating asymptomatic people helped eliminate virus in Italian village. BMJ. 2020;368:m1165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder-Smith A, Freedman DO. Isolation, quarantine, social distancing and community containment: pivotal role for old-style public health measures in the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) outbreak. J Travel Med. 2020;27(2):taaa020. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa020.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang S, Diao M, Yu W, Pei L, Lin Z, Chen D. Estimation of the reproductive number of novel coronavirus (COVID-19) and the probable outbreak size on the Diamond Princess cruise ship: a data-driven analysis. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;93:201–04.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauch CT, Lloyd-Smith JO, Coffee MP, Galvani AP. Dynamically modeling SARS and other newly emerging respiratory illnesses: past, present, and future. Epidemiology. 2005;16:791–801.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi S, Jung E, Choi BY, Hur YJ, Ki M. High reproduction number of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in nosocomial outbreaks: mathematical modelling in Saudi Arabia and South Korea. J Hosp Infect. 2018;99:162–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, Liang WH, Ou CQ, He JX, Liu L, Shan H, Lei CL, Hui DSC, et al. Clinical characteristics of Coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(18):1708-1720.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauer SA, Grantz KH, Bi Q, Jones FK, Zheng Q, Meredith HR, Azman AS, Reich NG, Lessler J. The incubation period of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) from publicly reported confirmed cases: estimation and application. Ann Intern Med. 2020;172(9):577-82.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baum SG. COVID-19 incubation period: an update. Nejm Journal Watch. 2020. https://www.jwatch.org/na51083/2020/03/13/covid-19-incubation-period-update
   Google Scholar
• TeamNCPERE. Vital surveillances: the epidemiological characteristics of an outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus diseases (COVID-19) – China. China CDC Weekly. 2020;2:113–22.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Patel AB, Verma A. COVID-19 and Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers: what is the evidence? JAMA. 2020. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.4812.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu N, Li W, Kang Q, Xiong Z, Wang S, Lin X, Liu Y, Xiao J, Liu H, Deng D, et al. Clinical features and obstetric and neonatal outcomes of pregnant patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective, single-centre, descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(5):559-64.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Su L, Ma X, Yu H, Zhang Z, Bian P, Han Y, Sun J, Liu Y, Yang C, Geng J, et al. The different clinical characteristics of corona virus disease cases between children and their families in China – the character of children with COVID-19. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9:707–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colson P, Tissot-Dupont H, Morand A, Boschi C, Ninove L, Esteves-Viera V, Gautre P, Brouqui P, Parola P, et al. Children account for a small proportion of diagnoses of SARS-CoV-2 infection and do not exhibit greater viral loads than adults. Pré-Prints IHU [COVID-IHU #3]. https://wwwmediterranee-infectioncom/pre-prints-ihu/ 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Hui DS, Azhar EI, Kim YJ, Memish ZA, Oh MD, Zumla A. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: risk factors and determinants of primary, household, and nosocomial transmission. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18:e217–e27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feng Y, Gao GF. Towards our understanding of SARS-CoV, an emerging and devastating but quickly conquered virus. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 2007;30:309–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan JF, Zhang AJ, Yuan S, Poon VK, Chan CC, Lee AC, Chan WM, Fan Z, Tsoi HW, Wen L, et al. Simulation of the clinical and pathological manifestations of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in golden Syrian Hamster model: implications for disease pathogenesis and transmissibility. Clin Infect Dis. 2020:ciaa325. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa325.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sia SF, Yan LM, Chin AWH, Fung K, Choy KT, Wong AYL, Kaewpreedee P, Perera RAPM, Poon LLM, Nicholls JM, et al. Pathogenesis and transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in golden hamsters. Nature. 2020. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2342-5
   Google Scholar
• Munster VJ, Feldmann F, Williamson BN, van Doremalen N, Perez-Perez L, Schulz J, Meade-White K, Okumura A, Callison J, Brumbaugh B, et al. Respiratory disease in rhesus macaques inoculated with SARS-CoV-2. Nature. 2020. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2324-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santos RAS, Oudit GY, Verano-Braga T, Canta G, Steckelings UM, Bader M. The renin-angiotensin system: going beyond the classical paradigms. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2019;316:H958–H70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steardo L, Steardo L Jr., Zorec R, Verkhratsky A. Neuroinfection may potentially contribute to pathophysiology and clinical manifestations of COVID-19. Acta Physiol (Oxf). 2020;229(3):e13473.
   Google Scholar
• Corman VM, Landt O, Kaiser M, Molenkamp R, Meijer A, Chu DK, Bleicker T, Brünink S, Schneider J, Schmidt ML, et al. Detection of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) by real-time RT-PCR. Euro Surveill. 2020;2525(3):2000045.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. Laboratory testing for coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in suspected human cases. Available online: https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus/laboratory-diagnostics-for-novel-coronavirus [ accessed on 1 April 2020]. 2020.
   Google Scholar
• To KK, Tsang OT, Leung WS, Tam AR, Wu TC, Lung DC, Yip CC, Cai JP, Chan JM, Chik TS, et al. Temporal profiles of viral load in posterior oropharyngeal saliva samples and serum antibody responses during infection by SARS-CoV-2: an observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(5):565-74.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicola M, O’Neill N, Sohrabi C, Khan M, Agha M, Agha R. Evidence based management guideline for the COVID-19 pandemic – Review article. Int J Surg. 2020;77:206–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salvi R, Patankar P. Emerging pharmacotherapies for COVID-19. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;128:110267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao J, Yuan Q, Wang H, Liu W, Liao X, Su Y, Wang X, Yuan J, Li T, Li J, et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients of novel coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis. 2020.ciaa344. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa344.
   Google Scholar
• Wang Z, Li H, Li J, Yang C, Guo X, Hu Z, Chen Z, Wang S, Liu J. Elevated serum IgM levels indicate poor outcome in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 pneumonia: a retrospective case-control study. medRxiv preprint. 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Qin C, Zhou L, Hu Z, Zhang S, Yang S, Tao Y, Xie C, Ma K, Shang K, Wang W, et al. Dysregulation of immune response in patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. Clin Infect Dis. 2020. ciaa248. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa248.
   Google Scholar
• Zhou Z, Ren L, Zhang L, Zhong J, Xiao Y, Jia Z, Guo L, Yang J, Wang C, Jiang S, et al. Heightened innate immune responses in the respiratory tract of COVID-19 patients. Cell Host Microbe. 2020; 27(6):883-90.e2.
   Google Scholar
• Bozzo J, Jorquera JI. Use of human immunoglobulins as an anti-infective treatment: the experience so far and their possible re-emerging role. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2017;15:585–604.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casadevall A, Pirofski LA. The convalescent sera option for containing COVID-19. J Clin Invest. 2020;130:1545–48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Traggiai E, Becker S, Subbarao K, Kolesnikova L, Uematsu Y, Gismondo MR, Murphy BR, Rappuoli R, Lanzavecchia A. An efficient method to make human monoclonal antibodies from memory B cells: potent neutralization of SARS coronavirus. Nat Med. 2004;10:871–75.
   Google Scholar
• Ahn JY, Sohn Y, Lee SH, Cho Y, Hyun JH, Baek YJ, Jeong SJ, Kim JH, Ku NS, Yeom JS, et al. Use of convalescent plasma therapy in two COVID-19 patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in Korea. J Korean Med Sci. 2020;35:e149.
   Google Scholar
• Shen C, Wang Z, Zhao F, Yang Y, Li J, Yuan J, Wang F, Li D, Yang M, Xing L, et al. Treatment of 5 critically ill patients with COVID-19 with convalescent plasma. JAMA. 2020; 323(16):1582-9.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang B, Liu S, Tan T, Huang W, Dong Y, Chen L, Chen Q, Zhang L, Zhong Q, Zhang X, et al. Treatment with convalescent plasma for critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Chest. 2020;S0012-3692(20)30571-7.
   Google Scholar
• Duan K, Liu B, Li C, Zhang H, Yu T, Qu J, Zhou M, Chen L, Meng S, Hu Y, et al. Effectiveness of convalescent plasma therapy in severe COVID-19 patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020; 117(17):9490-6.
   Google Scholar
• Pinto D, Park YJ, Beltramello M, Walls AC, Tortorici MA, Bianchi S, Jaconi S, Culap K, Zatta F, De Marco A, et al. Cross-neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 by a human monoclonal SARS-CoV antibody. Nature. 2020. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2349-y.
   Google Scholar
• Fu B, Xu X, Wei H. Why tocilizumab could be an effective treatment for severe COVID-19? J Transl Med. 2020;18:164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jawhara S. Could intravenous immunoglobulin collected from recovered coronavirus patients protect against COVID-19 and strengthen the immune system of new patients? Int J Mol Sci. 2020; 21(7):2272.
   Google Scholar
• Diez JM, Romero C, Gajardo R. Currently available intravenous immunoglobulin contains antibodies reacting against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 antigens. Immunotherapy. 2020;12(8):571-76.
   Google Scholar
• Diamond MS, Pierson TC. The challenges of vaccine development against a new virus during a pandemic. Cell Host Microbe. 2020;27:699–703.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amanat F, Krammer F. SARS-CoV-2 vaccines: status report. Immunity. 2020;52:583–89.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thanh Le T, Andreadakis Z, Kumar A, Gómez Román R, Tollefsen S, Saville M, Mayhew S. The COVID-19 vaccine development landscape. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2020; 19(5):305-6.
   Google Scholar
• Dhama K, Sharun K, Tiwari R, Dadar M, Malik YS, Singh KP, Chaicumpa W. COVID-19, an emerging coronavirus infection: advances and prospects in designing and developing vaccines, immunotherapeutics, and therapeutics. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2020;16(6):1232-8.
   Google Scholar
• Wan Y, Shang J, Sun S, Tai W, Chen J, Geng Q, He L, Chen Y, Wu J, Shi Z, et al. Molecular mechanism for antibody-dependent enhancement of coronavirus entry. J Virol. 2020;94(5):e02015-19.
   Google Scholar
• Katzelnick LC, Gresh L, Halloran ME, Mercado JC, Kuan G, Gordon A, Balmaseda A, Harris E. Antibody-dependent enhancement of severe dengue disease in humans. Science. 2017;358:929–32.
   Google Scholar
• Wang SF, Tseng SP, Yen CH, Yang JY, Tsao CH, Shen CW, Chen KH, Liu FT, Liu WT, Chen YM, et al. Antibody-dependent SARS coronavirus infection is mediated by antibodies against spike proteins. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2014;451:208–14. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.090.
   Google Scholar
• Tetro JA. Is COVID-19 receiving ADE from other coronaviruses? Microbes Infect. 2020;22:72–73. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2020.02.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar