Harnessing the non-specific immunogenic effects of available vaccines to combat COVID-19

References

• Negahdaripour M. The battle against covid-19: where do we stand now? Iran J Med Sci. 2020;45:81–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negahdaripour M. A world of changes: the inheritance of COVID-19. Iran J Med Sci. 2020;45:155–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amirlak I, Haddad R, Hardy JD, Khaled NS, Chung MH, Amirlak B Effectiveness of booster BCG vaccination in preventing Covid-19 infection. medRxiv 2020; 2020.08.10.20172288. doi: 10.1101/2020.08.10.20172288.
   Google Scholar
• Dayal D, Gupta S. Connecting BCG vaccination and COVID-19: additional data. medRxiv 2020; 2020.04.07.20053272. doi: 10.1101/2020.04.07.2005327.2
   Google Scholar
• Escobar LE, Molina-Cruz A, Barillas-Mury C. BCG vaccine protection from severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020;117:17720–26. doi:10.1073/pnas.2008410117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamiel U, Kozer E, Youngster I. SARS-CoV-2 rates in BCG-vaccinated and unvaccinated young adults. JAMA - J Am Med Assoc. 2020;323:2340–41. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.8189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riccò M, Gualerzi G, Ranzieri S, Luigi Bragazzi N. Stop playing with data: there is no sound evidence that bacille calmette-guérin may avoid SARS-CoV-2 infection for now. Acta Biomed. 2020;91:207–13.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BCG vaccination to protect healthcare workers against COVID-19 - ClinicalTrials.gov [Internet]. [ cited 2020 Sep 1]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04327206
   Google Scholar
• ClinicalTrials.gov [Internet]. [ cited 2020 Sep 1]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/.
   Google Scholar
• Netea MG, Joosten LAB, Latz E, Mills KHG, Natoli G, Stunnenberg HG, O’Neill LAJ, Xavier RJ. Trained immunity: A program of innate immune memory in health and disease. Science. 2016;352(6284):427. doi:10.1126/science.aaf1098.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodridge HS, Ahmed SS, Curtis N, Kollmann TR, Levy O, Netea MG, Pollard AJ, Van Crevel R, Wilson CB. Harnessing the beneficial heterologous effects of vaccination. Nat Rev Immunol. 2016;16(6):392–400. doi:10.1038/nri.2016.43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins J, Reingold A. Systematic review of the non-specific effects of BCG, DTP and measles containing vaccines. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2014;89:1–34.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Messina NL, Zimmermann P, Curtis N. The impact of vaccines on heterologous adaptive immunity. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2019;25(12):1484–93. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2019.02.016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• To KKW, Tsang OTY, Leung WS, Tam AR, Wu TC, Lung DC, Yip CCY, Cai JP, Chan JMC, Chik TSH, et al. Temporal profiles of viral load in posterior oropharyngeal saliva samples and serum antibody responses during infection by SARS-CoV-2: an observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(5):565–74. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30196-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, Schiergens TS, Herrler G, Wu NH, Nitsche A, et al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell. 2020;181(2):271–80. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owji H, Negahdaripour M, Hajighahramani N. Immunotherapeutic approaches to curtail COVID-19. Int Immunopharmacol. 2020;88:106924. doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2020.106924.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antalis TM, Bugge TH, Wu Q. Membrane-anchored serine proteases in health and disease. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2011;99:1–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yongwen C, Feng Z, Diao B, Wang R, Wang G, Wang C, Tan Y, Liu L, Wang C, Liu Y, et al. The novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) directly decimates human spleens and lymph nodes. medRxiv 2020; 2:2020.03.27.20045427; doi: 10.1101/2020.03.27.20045427
   Google Scholar
• Park MD. Macrophages: a Trojan horse in COVID-19? Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20(6):351. doi:10.1038/s41577-020-0317-2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fu Y, Cheng Y, Wu Y. Understanding SARS-CoV-2-mediated inflammatory responses: from mechanisms to potential therapeutic tools. Virol Sin. 2020;35:266–71. doi:10.1007/s12250-020-00207-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prompetchara E, Ketloy C, Palaga T. Immune responses in COVID-19 and potential vaccines: lessons learned from SARS and MERS epidemic. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol. 2020;38:1–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crouse J, Kalinke U, Oxenius A. Regulation of antiviral T cell responses by type i interferons. Nat Rev Immunol. 2015;15:231–42. doi:10.1038/nri3806.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNab F, Mayer-Barber K, Sher A, Wack A, O’Garra A. Type I interferons in infectious disease. Nat Rev Immunol. 2015;15:87–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braciale TJ, Hahn YS. Immunity to viruses. Immunol Rev. 2013;255:5–12. doi:10.1111/imr.12109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swain SL, McKinstry KK, Strutt TM. Expanding roles for CD4 + T cells in immunity to viruses. Nat Rev Immunol. 2012;12:136–48. doi:10.1038/nri3152.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kindler E, Thiel V, Weber F. Interaction of SARS and MERS coronaviruses with the antiviral interferon response. Adv Virus Res. 2016;96:219–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qin C, Zhou L, Hu Z, Zhang S, Yang S, Tao Y, Xie C, Ma K, Shang K, Wang W, et al. Dysregulation of immune response in patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. SSRN Electron J. 2020. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3541136.
   Google Scholar
• Diao B, Wang C, Tan Y, Chen X, Liu Y, Ning L, Chen L, Li M, Liu Y, Wang G, et al. Reduction and functional exhaustion of T cells in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Front Immunol. 2020. doi:10.1016/fimmu.2020.00827.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng HY, Zhang M, Yang CX, Zhang N, Wang XC, Yang XP, Dong XQ, Zheng YT. Elevated exhaustion levels and reduced functional diversity of T cells in peripheral blood may predict severe progression in COVID-19 patients. Cell Mol Immunol. 2020;17:541–43. doi:10.1038/s41423-020-0401-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Channappanavar R, Perlman S. Pathogenic human coronavirus infections: causes and consequences of cytokine storm and immunopathology. Semin Immunopathol. 2017;39:529–39. doi:10.1007/s00281-017-0629-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao X. COVID-19: immunopathology and its implications for therapy. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20:269–70. doi:10.1038/s41577-020-0308-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matricardi PM, Dal Negro RW, Nisini R. The first, holistic immunological model of COVID-19: implications for prevention, diagnosis, and public health measures. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2020;31:454–70. doi:10.1111/pai.13271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang M. Cell pyroptosis, a potential pathogenic mechanism of 2019-nCoV infection. SSRN Electron J. 2020. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3527420.
   Google Scholar
• Channappanavar R, Fehr AR, Vijay R, Mack M, Zhao J, Meyerholz DK, Perlman S. Dysregulated type I interferon and inflammatory monocyte-macrophage responses cause lethal pneumonia in SARS-CoV-infected mice. Cell Host Microbe. 2016;19:181–93. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2016.01.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Channappanavar R, Fehr AR, Zheng J, Wohlford-Lenane C, Abrahante JE, Mack M, Sompallae R, McCray PB, Meyerholz DK, Perlman S. IFN-I response timing relative to virus replication determines MERS coronavirus infection outcomes. J Clin Invest. 2019;129:3625–39. doi:10.1172/JCI126363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chu H, Chan JFW, Wang Y, Yuen TTT, Chai Y, Hou Y, Shuai H, Yang D, Hu B, Huang X, et al. Comparative replication and immune activation profiles of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV in human lungs: an ex vivo study with implications for the pathogenesis of COVID-19. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:1400–09.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei L, Ming S, Zou B, Wu Y, Hong Z, Li Z, Zheng X, Huang M, Luo L, Liang J, et al. Viral invasion and type i interferon response characterize the immunophenotypes during COVID-19 infection. SSRN Electron J. 2020. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3555695.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hadjadj J, Yatim N, Barnabei L, Corneau A, Boussier J, Pere H, Charbit B, Bondet V, Chenevier-Gobeaux C, Breillat P, et al. Impaired type I interferon activity and exacerbated inflammatory responses in severe Covid-19 patients. Science. 2020;369(6504):718–72461059. doi:10.1126/science.abc6027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molony RD, Malawista A, Montgomery RR. Reduced dynamic range of antiviral innate immune responses in aging. Exp Gerontol. 2018;107:130–35. doi:10.1016/j.exger.2017.08.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angelidou A, Diray-Arce J, Conti MG, Smolen KK, van Haren SD, Dowling DJ, Husson RN, Levy O. BCG as a case study for precision vaccine development: lessons from vaccine heterogeneity, trained immunity, and immune ontogeny. Front Microbiol. 2020;11:332. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2020.00332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Covián C, Fernández-Fierro A, Retamal-Díaz A, Díaz FE, Vasquez AE, Lay MK, Riedel CA, González PA, Bueno SM, Kalergis AM. BCG-induced cross-protection and development of trained immunity: implication for vaccine design. Front Immunol. 2019;10:2806. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.02806.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pulendran B, Maddur MS. Innate immune sensing and response to influenza. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2015;386:23–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer WA, Chason KD, Brighton M, Jaspers I. Live attenuated influenza vaccine strains elicit a greater innate immune response than antigenically-matched seasonal influenza viruses during infection of human nasal epithelial cell cultures. Vaccine. 2014;32:1761–67. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.12.069.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sirén J, Pirhonen J, Julkunen I, Matikainen S. IFN-α regulates TLR-dependent gene expression of IFN-α, IFN-β, IL-28, and IL-29. J Immunol. 2005;174:1932–37. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.174.4.1932.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oh SJ, Lee JK, Shin OS. Aging and the immune system: the impact of immunosenescence on viral infection, immunity and vaccine immunogenicity. Immune Netw. 2019;19(6):e37. doi:10.4110/in.2019.19.e37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uthayakumar D, Paris S, Chapat L, Freyburger L, Poulet H, De Luca K. Non-specific effects of vaccines illustrated through the BCG example: from observations to demonstrations. Front Immunol. 2018;9:2869. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.02869.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bessler H, Djaldetti M. Research article global vaccines and immunology glob vaccines immunol. Glob Vaccines Immunol. 2016;2:1–4.
   Google Scholar
• Valensi JP, Carlson JR, Van Nest GA. Systemic cytokine profiles in BALB/c mice immunized with trivalent influenza vaccine containing MF59 oil emulsion and other advanced adjuvants. J Immunol. 1994;153:4029–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tregoning JS, Russell RF, Kinnear E. Adjuvanted influenza vaccines. Hum Vaccines Immunother. 2018;14:550–64. doi:10.1080/21645515.2017.1415684.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hervas-Stubbs S, Perez-Gracia JL, Rouzaut A, Sanmamed MF, Le Bon A, Melero I. Direct effects of type I interferons on cells of the immune system. Clin Cancer Res. 2011;17:2619–27. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-10-1114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minciullo PL, Catalano A, Mandraffino G, Casciaro M, Crucitti A, Maltese G, Morabito N, Lasco A, Gangemi S, Basile G. Inflammaging and anti-inflammaging: the role of cytokines in extreme longevity. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz). 2016;64:111–26. doi:10.1007/s00005-015-0377-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franceschi C, Garagnani P, Parini P, Giuliani C, Santoro A. Inflammaging: a new immune–metabolic viewpoint for age-related diseases. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018;14:576–90. doi:10.1038/s41574-018-0059-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kandasamy R, Voysey M, McQuaid F, De Nie K, Ryan R, Orr O, Uhlig U, Sande C, O’Connor D, Pollard AJ. Non-specific immunological effects of selected routine childhood immunisations: systematic review. BMJ. 2016;355:i5225. doi:10.1136/bmj.i5225.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mizuno S, Soma S, Inada H, Kanuma T, Matsuo K, Yasutomi Y. SOCS1 antagonist–expressing recombinant bacillus Calmette–Guérin enhances antituberculosis protection in a mouse model. J Immunol. 2019;203:188–97. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1800694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao RG, Suarez NM, Obermoser G, Lopez SMC, Flano E, Mertz SE, Albrecht RA, García-Sastre A, Mejias A, Xu H, et al. Differences in antibody responses between trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine and live attenuated influenza vaccine correlate with the kinetics and magnitude of interferon signaling in children. J Infect Dis. 2014;210:224–33. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiu079.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakaya HI, Wrammert J, Lee EK, Racioppi L, Marie-Kunze S, Haining WN, Means AR, Kasturi SP, Khan N, Li GM, et al. Systems biology of vaccination for seasonal influenza in humans. Nat Immunol. 2011;12:786–95. doi:10.1038/ni.2067.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee AJ, Ashkar AA. The dual nature of type I and type II interferons. Front Immunol. 2018;9:2061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, Qiu Y, Wang J, Liu Y, Wei Y, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet. 2020;395:507–13. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernatowska E, Skomska-Pawliszak M, Wolska-Kuśnierz B, Pac M, Heropolitanska-Pliszka E, Pietrucha B, Bernat-Sitarz K, Dąbrowska-Leonik N, Bohynikova N, Piątosa B, et al. BCG moreau vaccine safety profile and NK cells—double protection against disseminated BCG infection in retrospective study of BCG vaccination in 52 polish children with severe combined immunodeficiency. J Clin Immunol. 2020;40:138–46. doi:10.1007/s10875-019-00709-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schapiro JM, Segev Y, Rannon L, Alkan M, Rager‐Zisman B. Natural killer (NK) cell response after vaccination of volunteers with killed influenza vaccine. J Med Virol. 1990;30:196–200. doi:10.1002/jmv.1890300310.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tai LH, Zhang J, Scott KJ, De Souza CT, Alkayyal AA, Ananth AA, Sahi S, Adair RA, Mahmoud AB, Sad S, et al. Perioperative influenza vaccination reduces postoperative metastatic disease by reversing surgery-induced dysfunction in natural killer cells. Clin Cancer Res. 2013;19:5104–15. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-13-0246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brillantes M, Beaulieu AM. Memory and memory-like NK cell responses to microbial pathogens. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020;10:102. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2020.00102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iorio AM, Bistoni O, Galdiero M, Lepri E, Camilloni B, Russano AM, Neri M, Basileo M, Spinozzi F. Influenza viruses and cross-reactivity in healthy adults: humoral and cellular immunity induced by seasonal 2007/2008 influenza vaccination against vaccine antigens and 2009 A(H1N1) pandemic influenza virus. Vaccine. 2012;30:1617–23. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.12.107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moris P, Van Der Most R, Leroux-Roels I, Clement F, Dramé M, Hanon E, Leroux-Roels GG, Van Mechelen M. H5N1 influenza vaccine formulated with AS03 A induces strong Cross-reactive and polyfunctional CD4 T-Cell responses. J Clin Immunol. 2011;31:443–54. doi:10.1007/s10875-010-9490-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moon C. Fighting COVID-19 exhausts T cells. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20:277. doi:10.1038/s41577-020-0304-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dara M, Acosta CD, Rusovich V, Zellweger JP, Centis R, Migliori GB. Bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccination: the current situation in Europe. Eur Respir J. 2014;43:24–35. doi:10.1183/09031936.00113413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moorlag SJCFM, Arts RJW, van Crevel R, Netea MG. Non-specific effects of BCG vaccine on viral infections. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2019;25:1473–78. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2019.04.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Netea MG, Domínguez-Andrés J, Barreiro LB, Chavakis T, Divangahi M, Fuchs E, Joosten LAB, van der Meer JWM, Mhlanga MM, Mulder WJM, et al. Defining trained immunity and its role in health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20:375–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleinnijenhuis J, Quintin J, Preijers F, Joosten LAB, Ifrim DC, Saeed S, Jacobs C, Van Loenhout J, De Jong D, Hendrik S, et al. Bacille Calmette-Guérin induces NOD2-dependent nonspecific protection from reinfection via epigenetic reprogramming of monocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109:17537–42. doi:10.1073/pnas.1202870109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore JB, June CH. Cytokine release syndrome in severe COVID-19. Science. 2020;368:473–74. doi:10.1126/science.abb8925.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rizza P, Capone I, Moretti F, Proietti E, Belardelli F. IFN-α as a vaccine adjuvant: recent insights into the mechanisms and perspectives for its clinical use. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2011;10:487–98. doi:10.1586/erv.11.9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivas-Santiago CE, Guerrero GG. IFN-α boosting of mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette Güerin-vaccine promoted Th1 type cellular response and protection against M. tuberculosis Infection . Biomed Res Int. 2017;2017:8796760.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giacomini E, Remoli ME, Gafa V, Pardini M, Fattorini L, Coccia EM. IFN-β improves BCG immunogenicity by acting on DC maturation. J Leukoc Biol. 2009;85(3):462–68. doi:10.1189/jlb.0908583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Sahrigy SAF, Rahman AMOA, Samaha DY, Mohamed NA, Saber SM, Talkhan HA, Ismail GA, Ibraheem EM, Riad EM. The influence of interferon-β supplemented human dendritic cells on BCG immunogenicity. J Immunol Methods. 2018;457:15–21. doi:10.1016/j.jim.2018.03.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamada R, Yang W, Zhang Y, Patel MC, Yang Y, Ouda R, Dey A, Wakabayashi Y, Sakaguchi K, Fujita T, et al. Interferon stimulation creates chromatin marks and establishes transcriptional memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2018;115:E9162–71. doi:10.1073/pnas.1720930115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leeson CE, Ismail A, Hashad MM, Elmansy H, Shahrour W, Prowse O, Kotb A. Systematic review: safety of intravesical therapy for bladder cancer in the era of COVID-19. SN Compr Clin Med. 2020;18:1–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fiore AE, Bridges CB, Katz JM, Cox NJ. Inactivated influenza vaccines. In: Plotkin S, Orenstein W, Offit P, editors. Vaccines. 6th Ed. Elsevier Saunders; 2012. p. 257–93.
   Google Scholar
• van Essen GA, Beran J, Devaster JM, Durand C, Duval X, Esen M, Falsey AR, Feldman G, Gervais P, Innis BL, et al. Influenza symptoms and their impact on elderly adults: randomised trial of AS03-adjuvanted or non-adjuvanted inactivated trivalent seasonal influenza vaccines. Influenza Other Respi Viruses. 2014;8:452–62. doi:10.1111/irv.12245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowling BJ, Fang VJ, Nishiura H, Chan KH, Ng S, Ip DKM, Chiu SS, Leung GM, Malik Peiris JS. Increased risk of noninfluenza respiratory virus infections associated with receipt of inactivated influenza vaccine. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:1778–83. doi:10.1093/cid/cis307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee YJ, Lee JY, Jang YH, Seo SU, Chang J, Seong BL. Non-specific effect of vaccines: immediate protection against respiratory syncytial virus infection by a live attenuated influenza vaccine. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:83. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.00083.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiseleva I. New points of departure for more global influenza vaccine use. Vaccines. 2020;8:1–8. doi:10.3390/vaccines8030410.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ånestad G. Interference between outbreaks of respiratory syncytial virus and influenza virus infection. Lancet. 1982;319:502. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(82)91466-0.
   Google Scholar
• Salem ML, El-Hennawy D. The possible beneficial adjuvant effect of influenza vaccine to minimize the severity of COVID-19. Med Hypotheses. 2020;140:109752. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2020.109752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Didierlaurent A, Goulding J, Patel S, Snelgrove R, Low L, Bebien M, Lawrence T, Van Rijt LS, Lambrecht BN, Sirard JC, et al. Sustained desensitization to bacterial Toll-like receptor ligands after resolution of respiratory influenza infection. J Exp Med. 2008;205:323–29. doi:10.1084/jem.20070891.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linde A, Rotzén-Ostlund M, Zweygberg-Wirgart B, Rubinova S, Brytting M. Does viral interference affect spread of influenza? Euro Surveill. 2009;14:40.
   Google Scholar
• Dyer O. What did we learn from Tamiflu? BMJ. 2020;368:m626. doi:10.1136/bmj.m626.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vatti A, Monsalve DM, Pacheco Y, Chang C, Anaya JM, Gershwin ME. Original antigenic sin: A comprehensive review. J Autoimmun. 2017;83:12–21. doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2017.04.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Midgley CM, Bajwa-Joseph M, Vasanawathana S, Limpitikul W, Wills B, Flanagan A, Waiyaiya E, Tran HB, Cowper AE, Chotiyarnwon P, et al. An in-depth analysis of original antigenic sin in dengue virus infection. J Virol. 2011;85:410–21. doi:10.1128/JVI.01826-10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki M, Camacho A, Ariyoshi K. Potential effect of virus interference on influenza vaccine effectiveness estimates in test-negative designs. Epidemiol Infect. 2014;142:2642–46. doi:10.1017/S0950268814000107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly H, Barry S, Laurie K, Mercer G. Seasonal influenza vaccination and the risk of infection with pandemic influenza: A possible illustration of nonspecific temporary immunity following infection. Eurosurveillance. 2010;15:47. doi:10.2807/ese.15.47.19722-en.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skowronski DM, de Serres G, Crowcroft NS, Janjua NZ, Boulianne N, Hottes TS, Rosella LC, Dickinson JA, Gilca R, Sethi P, et al. Association between the 2008-09 seasonal influenza vaccine and pandemic H1N1 illness during spring-summer 2009: four observational studies from Canada. PLoS Med. 2010;7:e1000258. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff GG. Influenza vaccination and respiratory virus interference among department of defense personnel during the 2017–2018 influenza season. Vaccine. 2020;38:350–54. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.10.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rynda-Apple A, Robinson KM, Alcorn JF. Influenza and bacterial superinfection: illuminating the immunologic mechanisms of disease. Infect Immun. 2015;83:3764–70. doi:10.1128/IAI.00298-15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rikin S, Jia H, Vargas CY, Castellanos de Belliard Y, Reed C, LaRussa P, Larson EL, Saiman L, Stockwell MS. Assessment of temporally-related acute respiratory illness following influenza vaccination. Vaccine. 2018;36:1958–64. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.02.105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CDC. Key facts about seasonal flu vaccine [Internet]. Program2008 [ cited 2020 Aug 17]; 1–3. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/protect/keyfacts.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Leentjens J, Kox M, Stokman R, Gerretsen J, Diavatopoulos DA, Van Crevel R, Rimmelzwaan GF, Pickkers P, Netea MG. BCG vaccination enhances the immunogenicity of subsequent influenza vaccination in healthy volunteers: A randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study. J Infect Dis. 2015;212:1930–38. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiv332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar