624
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
General Paper Supplement

Somalia: unable to escape its past? Revisiting the roots of a fractured state and elusive nation

Pages 223-239 | Received 15 Apr 2014, Accepted 11 Sep 2014, Published online: 17 Oct 2014

References

  • Abdi, Said Yusuf. 1979. “Self-Determination for Ogaden Somalis.” Horn of Africa 1 (1): 20–25.
  • Adam, Hussein. 1983. “Language, National Consciousness and Identity: The Somali Experience.” In Nationalism and Self-Determination in the Horn of Africa, edited by I. M. Lewis, 31–42. London: Ithaca.
  • Adam, H. 1993. Militarism and Warlordism: Rethinking the Somali Experience. Working Paper of the African Studies Centre at Boston University. Boston: Boston University.
  • Adam, Hussein. 1994. “Formation and Recognition of New States: Somaliland in Contrast to Eritrea.” Review of African Political Economy 21 (59): 21–38. doi: 10.1080/03056249408704034
  • Adam, Hussein. 1995. “Somalia: A Terrible Beauty Being Born?” In Collapsed States – The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority, edited by William Zartman, 69–90. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  • Adam, Hussein. 1999. “Somalia: Problems and Prospects for Democratization.” In State Building and Democratization in Africa – Faith, Hope and Realities, edited by Ken Menkhaus and Cyril K. Daddieh, 261–277. London: Praeger. http://www.somalilandnet.com/snm.shtml
  • Adam, Hussein M. 2008. From Tyranny to Anarchy – The Somali Experience. Asmara: The Red Sea Press.
  • Adan, Amina H. 1994. “Somalia: An Illusory Political Nation-State.” South Asia Bulktin 14 (1): 99–109.
  • Anderson, Benedict R. 1983. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso.
  • Balthasar, Dominik. Forthcoming. “From Hybridity to Standardization: Rethinking State-Making in Contexts of Fragility”. Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding.
  • Barnes, Cedric. 2007. “The Somali Youth League, Ethiopian Somalis and the Greater Somalia Idea, C. 1946–48.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 1 (2): 277–291. doi: 10.1080/17531050701452564
  • Barth, F. 1969. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference. London: Allen and Unwin.
  • Battera, Federico, and Allessandro Campo. 2001. “The Evolution and Integration of Different Legal Systems in the Horn of Africa: The Case of Somaliland.” Global Jurist Frontiers 1 (1): 1–39.
  • Besteman, Catherine. 1996a. “Representing Violence and ‘Othering’ Somalia.” Cultural Anthropology 11 (1): 120–133. doi: 10.1525/can.1996.11.1.02a00060
  • Besteman, Catherine. 1996b. “Violent Politics and the Politics of Violence: The Dissolution of the Somali Nation-State.” American Ethnologist 23 (3): 579–596. doi: 10.1525/ae.1996.23.3.02a00070
  • von Bogdandy, A., and R. Wolfrum. 2005. Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law. Vol. 9. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill.
  • Böge, Volker, Anne Brown, Kevin Clements, and Anna Nolan. 2008. “On Hybrid Political Orders and Emerging States: State Formation in the Context of ‘Fragility’.” Report. Berghof Research Centre for Constructive Conflict Management.
  • Bradbury, Mark. 2008. Becoming Somaliland. London: Progressio.
  • Brinkerhoff, D. 2007. “Governance Challenges in Fragile States: Re-Establishing Security, Rebuilding Effectiveness, and Reconstituting Legitimacy.” In Governance in Post-Conflict Societies – Rebuilding Fragile States, edited by D. Brinkerhoff, 1–22. London: Routledge.
  • Brons, Maria. 2001. Society, Security, Sovereignty and the State in Somalia – From Statelessness to Statelessness? Utrecht: International Books.
  • Calhoun, C. 1997. Nationalism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
  • Cassanelli, Lee. 1996. “Explaining the Somali Crisis.” In The Struggle for Land in Southern Somalia – The War Behind the War, edited by Catherine Besteman and Lee Casanelli, 313–326. London: Haan Publishing.
  • Castagno, Alphonso. 1959. “Somalia.” International Conciliation 522 (March): 339–400.
  • Castagno, Alphonso. 1962. “The Somali Republic.” In The Educated African: A Country-to-Country Survey of Educational Development in Africa, edited by H. Kitchen, 83–107. New York: Praeger.
  • Castagno, Alphonso. 1964. “The Political Party System in the Somali Republic.” In Political Parties and National Integration in Tropical Africa, edited by James Coleman and Carl Rosberg, 512–559. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Clapham, Christopher. 2001. “War and State Formation in Ethiopia and Eritrea.” Paper presented at the Failed States Conference, Florence, April 10–14.
  • Compagnon, Daniel. 1995. “Ressources Politiques, Regulation Autoritaire et Domination Personnelle en Somalie [Political Resources, Authoritrian Regulation and Personal Domination in Somalia].” Doctoral Thesis. Science Politique. Francois Constantin Publisher, Pau.
  • Contini, Jeanne. 1963. “Somali Republic: A Nation of Poets in Search of an Alphabet.” Africa Report 8 (11): 15–18.
  • Cotran, Eugene. 1963. “Legal Problems Arising Out of the Formation of the Somali Republic.” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 12 (3): 1010–1026. doi: 10.1093/iclqaj/12.3.1010
  • CRD (Centre for Research and Dialogue). 2004. “Somalia: Path to Recovery – Building a Sustainable Peace”. Report. Centre for Research and Dialogue.
  • Crone, Donald K. 1988. “State, Social Elites and Government Capacity in Southeast Asia.” World Politics 40 (2): 252–268. doi: 10.2307/2010364
  • CSRC (Crisis States Research Centre). 2005. “War, State Collapse and Reconstruction: Phase 2 of the Crisis States Programme”. Report. London School of Economics and Political Science.
  • Denzau, Arthur, and Douglass Cecil North. 1994. “Shared Mental Models: Ideologies and Institutions.” Kyklos 47 (1): 3–31. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6435.1994.tb02246.x
  • Deutsch, Karl. 1953. Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Nationality. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
  • Doornbos, M., and J. Markakis. 1994. “Society and State in Crisis: What Went Wrong in Somalia?” In Uppsala Forum on Crisis Management and the Politics of Reconciliation in Somalia, edited by M. Salih and L. Wohlgemuth, 12–18. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
  • Drysdale, John. 1964. The Somali Dispute. New York: Praeger.
  • Drysdale, John. 2001. Whatever Happened to Somalia? London: Haan Associates.
  • Egal, Mohamed Haji Ibrahim. 1968. “Somalia: Nomadic Individualism and the Rule of Law.” African Affairs 67 (268): 219–226.
  • Eno, O. A. 2007. “Somalia's Recovery and Reformation: Transcending the Rhetoric of Clan Politics.” In Somalia at the Crossroads: Challenges and Perspectives in Reconstituting a Failed State, edited by A. Osman and I. Souaré, 131–149. London: Adonis & Abbey Publishers.
  • Evans, Peter, Dietrich Rueschmeyer, and Theda Skocpol. 1985. Bringing the State Back In. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Fox, M. J. 1999. “Somalia Divided: The African Cerberus (Considerations on Political Culture).” Civil Wars 2 (1): 1–34. doi: 10.1080/13698249908402395
  • Galaydh, Ali Khalif. 1986. “Democratic Practice and Breakdown in Somalia.” In Democracy and Pluralism in Africa, edited by Dov Ronen, 127–131. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  • Gassem, Mariam Arif. 1994. Hostages: The People Who Kidnapped Themselves. Nairobi: Central Graphics Services.
  • Gellner, Ernest. 2006. Nations and Nationalism. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell.
  • Geshekter, Charles. 1985. “Anti-Colonialism and Class Formation: The Eastern Horn of Africa, 1920–1950.” International Journal of African Historical Studies 18 (1): 1–32.
  • Ghalib, Jama Mohamed. 1995. The Cost of Dictatorship – The Somali Experience. New York: Lillian Barber Press.
  • Ghani, Ashraf, and Clare Lockhart. 2008. Fixing Failed States: A Framework for Rebuilding a Fractured World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Gilkes, Patrick. 1993. “Two Wasted Years: The Republic of Somaliland 1991–1993”. Report. Save the Children Fund.
  • Hashim, Alice. 1997. “Conflicting Identities in Somalia.” Peace Review 9 (4): 527–532. doi: 10.1080/10402659708426104
  • Henze, Paul. 1985. “Rebels and Separatists in Ethiopia – Prepared for the Office of the Under Secretary of Defence for Policy”. Report. Rand.
  • Hess, Robert L. 1964. “The ‘Mad Mullah’ and Northern Somalia.” The Journal of African History 5 (3): 415–433. doi: 10.1017/S0021853700005107
  • Hobbes of Malmesbury, T. 1651. Leviathan, Or, the Matter, Form and Power of a Common-Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil. Edited by Ian Shaprio (2010). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
  • Hoben, Allan. 1988. “The Political Economy of Land Tenure in Somalia.” In Land and Society in Contemporary Africa, edited by R. E. Downs and S. P. Reyna, 192–220. London: University Press of New England.
  • Hobsbawm, E. J. 1977. The Age of Revolution: 1789–1846. London: Cardinal.
  • Höhne, Markus. 2006. “Traditional Authorities in Northern Somalia: Transformation of Positions and Powers.” Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology Working Paper 82.
  • Holland, J., K. Holyoak, R. Nisbett, and P. Thagard. 1986. Induction: Processes of Inference, Learning, and Discovery. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
  • HRW (Human Rights Watch), Africa Watch Committee. 1990. “Somalia: A Government at War with Its Own People – Testimonies about the Killings and the Conflict in the North”. Report. Human Rights Watch.
  • Huliaras, Asteris. 2002. “The Viability of Somaliland: Internal Constraints and Regional Geopolitics.” Journal of Contemporary African Studies 20 (2): 157–182. doi: 10.1080/0258900022000005151
  • ICPE (International Center for Public Enterprises in Developing Countries). 1983. “The Role of the Public Sector in Developing Countries”. Report.
  • Issa-Salwe, Abdisalam. 1994. The Collapse of the Somali State – The Impact of the Colonial Legacy. London: Haan Associates.
  • Jama, Hassan. 2000. “SNM Executive Committee Memorandum – Somaliland: On the Restoration of Its Sovereignty and Independence.” Accessed October 12, 2009. http://www.somalilandlaw.com/SNM_Executive_Committee_Memo_on_Recognition_2000.htm
  • Katzenstein, Peter J. 1985. Small States in World Markets. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
  • Labahn, Thomas. 1982. Sprache Und Staat – Sprachpolitik in Somalia [Language and State – Language Politics in Somalia]. Hamburg: Helmut Buske.
  • Laitin, David. 1976. “The Political Economy of Military Rule in Somalia.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 14 (3): 449–468. doi: 10.1017/S0022278X00053519
  • Laitin, David. 1977. Politics, Language, and Thought – The Somali Experience. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
  • Laitin, David. 1993. “The Economy.” In Somalia: A Country Study, edited by Helen Chapin Metz, 119–149. Washington, DC: Library of Congress/U.S. Government Printing Office.
  • Laitin, David, and Said S. Samatar. 1987. Somalia: Nation in Search of a State. Profiles: Nations of Contemporary Africa. Boulder, CO: Westview.
  • Lemay-Hébert, Nicolas. 2009. “Statebuilding Without Nation-Building? Legitimacy, State Failure and the Limits of the Institutionalist Approach.” Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 3 (1): 21–45. doi: 10.1080/17502970802608159
  • Levene, Mark. 2000. “The Limits of Tolerance: Nation-State Building and What It Means for Minority Groups.” Patterns of Prejudice 34 (2): 19–40. doi: 10.1080/00313220008559138
  • Lewis, Ioan M. 1967. “Integration in the Somali Republic.” In African Integration and Disintegration – Case Studies in Economic and Political Union, edited by Arthur Hazlewood, 251–284. London: Oxford University Press.
  • Lewis, Ioan M. 1972. “The Politics of the 1969 Somali Coup.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 10 (3): 383–408. doi: 10.1017/S0022278X0002262X
  • Lewis, Ioan M. 1982. A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. New York: Africana Pub. Co. for the International African Institute.
  • Lewis, Ioan M. 1988. A Modern History of Somalia: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. 3rd ed. London: Westview Press.
  • Lewis, Ioan M. 1993. Making History in Somalia: Humanitarian Intervention in a Stateless Society. London: London School of Economics, Center for the Study of Global Governance.
  • Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. 4th ed. Eastern African Studies. Oxford: James Currey.
  • Lindblom, C. 1977. Politics and Markets. New York: Basic Books.
  • Linz, Juan. 2000. Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
  • Locke, John. 1694. Two Treatises of Government. Edited by Mark Goldie (1994). London: Everyman.
  • Luling, Virginia. 1997. “Come Back Somalia? Questioning a Collapsed State.” Third World Quarterly 18 (2): 287–302. doi: 10.1080/01436599714957
  • Mann, Michael. 1984. “The Autonomous Power of the State: Its Origins, Mechanisms and Results.” European Journal of Sociology 25 (2): 185–213. doi: 10.1017/S0003975600004239
  • Marchal, Roland. 2002. “Somalie: Dissolution de l'Etat et Nouveaux Acteurs Sociaux” [Somalia: State Dissolution and New Social Actors]. Estratto Da “Annali” Della Fonazione Giangiacomo Feltrinelli 38 (2): 217–233.
  • Markakis, John. 1987. National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Marx, A. 2003. Faith in Nation – Exclusionary Origins of Nationalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Massey, Garth. 1994. “Somalia before the Fall.” Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue Canadienne Des Etudes Africaines 28 (1): 123–126.
  • Migdal, Joel. 2001. State in Society: Studying How States and Societies Transform and Constitute One Another. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Mohamed, Saeed Sheikh. 1992. “The Rise and Fall of Somali Nationalism.” Refugee Survey Quarterly 12 (5): 4–7.
  • Muhammad, Haji N. A. Noor. 1972. The Legal System of the Somali Democratic Republic. Charlottesville, VA: The Michie Company.
  • Nenova, Tatiana, and Tim Harford. 2004. “Anarchy and Invention – How Does Somalia's Private Sector Cope without Government?” Report. World Bank. http://rru.worldbank.org/PublicPolicyJournal
  • Nordlinger, E. 1981. On the Autonomy of the Democratic State. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Norman, D. 1983. “Some Observations on Mental Models.” In Mental Models, edited by Dedre Gentner and Albert Stevens, 7–14. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • North, Douglass Cecil. 1990. Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Political Economy of Institutions and Decisions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • North, Douglass Cecil. 2005. Understanding the Process of Economic Change. Princeton Economic History of the Western World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
  • North, Douglass Cecil, John Wallis, Stephen Webb, and Barry Weingast. 2007. “Limited Access Orders in the Developing World – A New Approach to the Problems of Development.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper. Washington, DC: World Bank.
  • North, Douglass Cecil, John Wallis, and Barry Weingast. 2006. “A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History”. Report. National Bureau of Economic Research.
  • OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development)/DAC (Development Assistance Committee). 2008. Concepts and Dilemmas of State Building in Fragile Situations – From Fragility to Resilience. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
  • Potholm, Christian. 1970. Four African Political Systems. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
  • Rajagopal, B., and Anthony Carroll. 1992. “The Case for the Independent Statehood of Somaliland.” American University Journal of International Law and Policy, no. 8: 653–683.
  • Röder, P. 2007. Where Nation-States Come From – Institutional Change in the Age of Nationalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
  • Samatar, Ahmed Ibrahim. 1993a. “Under Siege: Blood, Power, and the Somali State.” In Arms and Daggers in the Hearts of Africa – Studies on Internal Conflicts, edited by P. Anyang’ Nyong'o, 67–100. Nairobi: Arrucian Academy of Science.
  • Samatar, Said S. 1993b. “Historical Setting.” In Somalia: A Country Study, edited by H. C. Metz, 3–53. Washington, DC: Library of Congress/U.S. Government Printing Office.
  • Samatar, Ahmed Ismail. 1988. Socialist Somalia – Rhetoric and Reality. London: Zed Books.
  • Samatar, Ahmed Ismail. 1994. “The Curse of Allah: Civic Disembowelment and the Collapse of the State in Somalia.” In The Somali Challenge – From Catastrophe to Renewal? Edited by Ahmed Ismail Samatar, 95–146. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
  • Samatar, Abdi, and Ahmed I. Samatar. 1987. “The Material Roots of the Suspended African State: Arguments from Somalia.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 25 (4), 669–690.
  • Schwartz, Benjamin. 1995. “The Diversity Myth: America's Leading Export.” Atlantic Monthly 275 (5): 57–67.
  • Sheik-Abdi, Abdi. 1977. “Somali Nationalism: Its Origins and Future.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 15 (4): 657–665. doi: 10.1017/S0022278X00002299
  • Simmel, Georg. 1964. “Conflict.” In Conflict and the Web of Group-Affiliations, edited by G. Simmel, 1st Free Press pbk., 13–123. New York: Free Press.
  • Singh, Iqbal, and Mohamed Hassan Said. 1973. Commentary on the Criminal Procedure Code. Xamar: Wakaladda Madbacadda Qaranka.
  • Spears, Ian. 2010. Civil War in African States: The Search for Security. Boulder, CO: FirstForumPress.
  • Szilagyi-Gal, M. 2001. “The Nationality of Reasoning: Autochthonist Understandings of Philosophy in Interwar Romania.” In Nation-Building and Contested Identities: Romanian and Hungarian Case Studies, edited by B. Trencsenyi, D. Petrescu, C. Petrescu, C. Iordachi, and Z. Kantor, 81–92. Budapest: Regio Books.
  • Tilly, Charles. 1992. Coercion, Capital, and European States, A.D.990–1990. Studies in Social Discontinuity. Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell.
  • Touval, Saadia. 1963. Somali Nationalism: International Politics and the Drive for Unity in the Horn of Africa. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Ware, Gilbert. 1965. “Somalia: From Trust Territory to Nation, 1950–1960.” Phylon 26 (2): 173–185. doi: 10.2307/273632
  • Warsame, Ali A. 2001. “How a Strong Government Backed an African Language: The Lessons of Somalia.” International Review of Education 47 (3/4): 341–360. doi: 10.1023/A:1017910011570

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.