References
- Abutalebi, J., Della Rosa, P. A., Green, D. W., Hernandez, M., Scifo, P., Keim, R., Cappa, S. F., & Costa, A. (2012). Bilingualism tunes the anterior cingulate cortex for conflict monitoring. Cerebral Cortex, 22(9), 2076–2086. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhr287
- Acevedo, A., Loewenstein, D., Agrón, J., & Duara, J. (2007). Influence of sociodemographic variables on neuropsychological test performance in Spanish-speaking older adults. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 29(5), 530–544. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390600814740
- Arango-Lasprilla, J. C., Rivera, D., Garza, M. T., Saracho, C. P., Rodríguez, W., Rodríguez-Agudelo, Y., Aguayo, A., Schebela, S., Luna, M., Longoni, M., Martínez, C., Doyle, S., Ocampo-Barba, N., Galarza-del-Angel, J., Aliaga, A., Bringas, M., Esenarro, L., García-Egan, P., & Perrin, P. B. (2015). Hopkins verbal learning test- revised: Normative data for the Latin American Spanish speaking adult population. NeuroRehabilitation, 37(4), 699–718. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-151286
- Arango-Lasprilla, J. C., Rivera, D., Aguayo, A., Rodríguez, W., Garza, M. T., Saracho, C. P., Rodríguez-Agudelo, Y., Aliaga, A., Weiler, G., Luna, M., Longoni, M., Ocampo-Barba, N., Galarza-del-Angel, J., Panyavin, I., Guerra, A., Esenarro, L., García de la Cadena, P., Martínez, C., & Perrin, P. B. (2015). Trail making test: Normative data for the Latin American Spanish speaking adult population. NeuroRehabilitation, 37(4), 639–661. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-151284
- Ardila, A., Ostrosky-Solis, F., Rosselli, M., & Gomez, C. (2000). Age-related cognitive decline during normal aging: The complex effect of education. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15(6), 495–513. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/15.6.495
- Ardila, A. (2005). Cultural values underlying psychometric cognitive testing. Neuropsychology Review, 15(4), 185–195. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-005-9180-y
- Ardila, A. (2007). The impact of culture on neuropsychological test performance. International handbook of cross-cultural neuropsychology in International handbook of cross-cultural neuropsychology (pp. 23–44). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Ardila, A. (2018). Historical development of Human Cognition. Springer.
- Ardila, A., Bertolucci, P. H., Braga, L. W., Castro-Caldas, A., Judd, T., Kosmidis, M. H., Matute, E., Nitrini, R., Ostrosky-Solis, F., & Rosselli, M. (2010). Illiteracy: the neuropsychology of cognition without reading. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 25(8), 689–712. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acq079
- Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., & Puente, A. E. (1994). Neuropsychological evaluation of the Spanish speaker. Springer Science & Business Media.
- Arentoft, A., Byrd, D., Robbins, R. N., Monzones, J., Miranda, C., Rosario, A., Coulehan, K., Fuentes, A., Kubo Germano, K., D’Aquila, E., Sheynin, J., Fraser, F., Morgello, S., & Rivera Mindt, M. (2012). Multidimensional effects of acculturation on English-language neuropsychological test performance among HIV + Caribbean Latinas. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 34(8), 814–825. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2012.683856
- Benton, A. L. (1968). Differential behavioural effects in frontal lobe disease. Neuropsychologia, 6(1), 53–60. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(68)90038-9
- Benton, A. L., Hamsher, K. D., & Sivan, A. B. (1994). Multilingual aphasia examination. Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
- Benton, G., de Felipe, J., Xiaodong , & Sano, M. (2014). Performance of Spanish-speaking community-dwelling elders in the United States on the uniform data set. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 10(5), S338–S343. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2013.09.002
- Berry, J. (2003). Conceptual approaches to acculturation. In K. M. Chun, P. B. Organista & G. Marin (Eds.). Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement, and applied research (pp.17–37). American Psychological Association.
- Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Luk, G. (2012). Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 240–250. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001
- Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Freedman, M. (2007). Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia. Neuropsychologia, 45(2), 459–464. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009
- Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging, 19(2), 290–303. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.290
- Boone, K. B., Victor, T. L., Wen, J., Razani, J., & Pontón, M. (2007). The association between neuropsychological scores and ethnicity, language, and acculturation variables in a large patient population. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(3), 355–365. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.010
- Brandt, J. (1991). The Hopkins verbal learning test: Development of a new memory tests with six equivalent forms. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 5(2), 125–142. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13854049108403297
- Burke, S. L., Naseh, M., Rodriguez, M. J., Burgess, A., & Loewenstein, D. (2019). Dementia-related neuropsychological testing considerations in non-Hispanic White and Latino/Hispanic populations. Psychology & Neuroscience, 12(2), 144–168. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/pne0000163
- Burke, S. L., Rodriguez, M. J., Barker, W., Greig-Custo, M. T., Rosselli, M., Loewenstein, D. A., & Duara, R. (2018). Relationship between cognitive performance and measures of neurodegeneration among Hispanic and white non-Hispanic individuals with normal cognition, mild cognitive impairment, and dementia. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 24(2), 176–187. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617717000820
- Carreiras, M., Seghier, M. L., Baquero, S., Estevez, A., Lozano, A., Devlin, J. T., & Price, C. J. (2009). An anatomical signature for literacy. Nature, 461(7266), 983–986. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08461
- Castro-Caldas, A., Petersson, K. M., Reis, A., Stone-Elander, S., & Ingvar, M. (1998). The illiterate brain: Learning to read and write during childhood influences the functional organization of the adult brain. Brain, 121(6), 1053–1064. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/121.6.1053
- Chin, A. L., Negash, S., Xie, S., Arnold, S. E., & Hamilton, R. (2012). Quality, and not just quantity, of education accounts for differences in psychometric performance between African Americans and white non-Hispanics with Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18(2), 277–285. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617711001688
- Corrigan, J. D., & Hinkeldey, N. S. (1987). Relationships between Parts A and B of the Trail making test. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 43(4), 402–409. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(198707)43:4<402::AID-JCLP2270430411>3.0.CO;2-E
- Costumero, V., Marin-Marin, L., Calabria, M., Belloch, V., Escudero, J., Baquero, M., … Avila, C. (2020). A Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Study on the Protective Effect of Bilingualism Agains Dementia Using Brain Atrophy and Cognitive Measures. Alzheimer's Research & Therapy, 12(1), 11. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-020-0581.
- Craik, F. I., Bialystok, E., & Freedman, M. (2010). Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease: Bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve. Neurology, 75(19), 1726–1729. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181fc2a1c
- Cuellar, I., Arnold, B., & Gonzalez, G. (1995). Cognitive referents of acculturation: Assessment of cultural constructs in Mexican Americans. Journal of Community Psychology, 23(4), 339–356. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6629(199510)23:4<339::AID-JCOP2290230406>3.0.CO;2-7
- Davis, S. W., Dennis, N. A., Buchler, N. G., White, L. E., Madden, D. J., & Cabeza, R. (2009). Assessing the effects of age on long white matter tracts using diffusion tensor tractography. NeuroImage, 46(2), 530–541. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.01.068
- Dickerson, B. C., Stoub, T. R., Shah, R. C., Sperling, R. A., Killiany, R. J., Albert, M. S., Hyman, B. T., Blacker, D., & deToledo-Morrell, L. (2011). Alzheimer-signature MRI biomarker predicts AD dementia in cognitively normal adults. Neurology, 76(16), 1395–1402. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182166e96
- Dotson, V., Kitner-Triolo, M., Evans, M., & Zonderman, A. (2009). Effects of race and socioeconomic status on the relative influence of education and literacy on cognitive functioning. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15(4), 580–589. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617709090821
- Ennis, S. R., Rios-Vargas, M., Albert, N. G. (2011). The Hispanic population: 2010 (No. C2010BR–04) (pp. 1–16). United States census bureau. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf
- Fox, M., Thayer, Z., & Wadhwa, P. D. (2017). Assessment of acculturation in minority health research. Social Science & Medicine, 176, 123–132. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.01.029
- Golden, C. J., White, L., Combs, T., Morgan, M., & McLane, D. (1999). WMS-R and MAS correlations in a neuropsychological population. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 14(3), 265–271. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/14.3.265
- Gollan, T. H., & Acenas, R. (2004). What Is a TOT? Cognate and translation effects on tip-of-the-tongue states in Spanish-English and Tagalog-English bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30(1), 246–269. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.30.1.246
- Gollan, T. H., Montoya, R. I., & Werner, G. A. (2002). Semantic and letter fluency in Spanish-English bilinguals. Neuropsychology, 16(4), 562–576. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.16.4.562
- Gollan, T. H., Montoya, R. I., Cera, C., & Sandoval, T. C. (2008). More use almost always means a smaller frequency effect: Aging, bilingualism, and the weaker links hypothesis. Journal of Memory and Language, 58(3), 787–814. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2007.07.001
- Guo, L., Alexopoulos, P., Eisele, T., Wagenpfeil, S., Kurz, A., & Perneczky, R. (2013). The National institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association research criteria for mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer’s disease: Predicting the outcome. European Archives of Psychiatry & Clinical Neuroscience, 263(4), 325–333. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-012-0349-0
- Harris, M. (1983). Culture, people, nature: An introduction to general anthropology (3rd ed.). Harper & Row.
- Hartsuiker, R. J., Costa, A., & Finkbeiner, M. (2008). Bilingualism: Functional and neural perspectives. Acta Psychologica, 128(3), 413–418. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.05.001
- Hernandez Cardenache, R., Burguera, L., Acevedo, A., Curiel, R., & Loewenstein, D. A. (2014). Evaluating different aspects of prospective memory in amnestic and non-amnestic mild cognitive impairment. ISRN Neurology, 2014, 1–7.
- Holland, D., Brewer, J. B., Hagler, D. J., Fennema-Notestine, C., & Dale, A. M. (2009). Subregional neuroanatomical change as a biomarker for Alzheimer’s disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(49), 20954–20959.
- Ivanova, I., & Costa, A. (2008). Does bilingualism hamper lexical access in speech production? Acta Psychologica, 127(2), 277–288. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.06.003
- Kave, G., Shrira, A., Palgi, Y., Spalter, T., Ben-Ezra, M., & Shmotkin, D. (2012). Formal education level versus self-rated literacy as predictors of cognitive aging. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 67(6), 697–704. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbs031
- Kowoll, M. E., Degen, C., Gladis, S., & Schroder, J. (2015). Neuropsychological profiles and verbal abilities in lifelong bilinguals with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 45(4), 1257–1268. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-142880
- La Rue, A. (2010). Healthy brain aging: Role of cognitive reserve, cognitive stimulation, and cognitive exercises. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, 26(1), 99–111. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cger.2009.11.003
- Li, G., Cheung, R. T. F., Gao, J. H., Lee, T. M. C., Tan, L. H., Fox, P. T., Jack, C. R., & Yang, E. S. (2006). Cognitive processing in Chinese literate and illiterate subjects: An fMRI study. Human Brain Mapping, 27(2), 144–152. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20173
- Loewenstein, D. A., Curiel, R. E., Greig, M. T., Bauer, R. M., Rosado, M., Bowers, D., Wicklund, M., Crocco, E., Pontecorvo, M., Joshi, A. D., Rodriguez, R., Barker, W. W., Hidalgo, J., & Duara, R. (2016). A novel cognitive stress test for the detection of preclinical Alzheimer disease: Discriminative properties and relation to amyloid load. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 24(10), 804–813. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2016.02.056
- Loewenstein, D. A., Curiel, R. E., Wright, C., Sun, X., Alperin, N., Crocco, E., Czaja, S. J., Raffo, A., Penate, A., Melo, J., Capp, K., Gamez, M., & Duara, R. (2017). Recovery from proactive semantic interference in mild cognitive impairment and normal aging: Relationship to atrophy in brain regions vulnerable to Alzheimer’ disease. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 56(3), 1119–1126. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-160881
- Loewenstein, D. A., Curiel, R. E., DeKosky, S., Bauer, R. M., Rosselli, M., Guinjoan, S. M., Adjouadi, M., Peñate, A., Barker, W. W., Goenaga, S., Golde, T., Greig-Custo, M. T., Hanson, K. S., Li, C., Lizarraga, G., Marsiske, M., & Duara, R. (2018). Utilizing semantic intrusions to identify amyloid positivity in mild cognitive impairment. Neurology, 91(10), e976–e984. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000006128
- Luk, G., Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Grady, C. L. (2011). Lifelong bilingualism maintains white matter integrity in older adults. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(46), 16808–16813. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4563-11.2011
- Manly, J. J., Byrd, D. A., Touradji, P., & Stern, Y. (2004). Acculturation, reading level, and neuropsychological test performance among African American elders. Applied Neuropsychology, 11(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324826an1101_5
- Manly, J. J., Schupf, N., Tang, M. X., & Stern, Y. (2005). Cognitive decline and literacy among ethnically diverse elders. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 18(4), 213–217. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0891988705281868
- Manly, J. J., Touradji, P., Tang, M. X., & Stern, Y. (2003). Literacy and memory decline among ethnically diverse elders. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5), 680–690. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1076/jcen.25.5.680.14579
- Marin, G., & Gamba, R. J. (1996). A new measurement of acculturation for Hispanics: The Bidimensional acculturation scale for Hispanics (BAS). Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 18(3), 297–316. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863960183002
- Mayeda, E., Glymour, M., Quesenberry, C., & Whitmer, R. (2016). Inequalities in dementia incidence between six racial and ethnic groups over 14 years. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 12(3), 216–224. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2015.12.007
- McMurtray, A., Saito, E., & Nakamoto, B. (2009). Language preference and development of dementia among bilingual individuals. Hawaii Medical Journal, 68(9), 223–229.
- Mechelli, A., Crinion, J. T., Noppeney, U., O'Doherty, J., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. S., & Price, C. J. (2004). Neurolinguistics: Structural plasticity in the bilingual brain. Nature, 431(7010), 757–757. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1038/431757a
- Muñoz-Sandoval, A. F., Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2005). Batería III Woodcock-Muñoz: Pruebas de aprovechamiento. Riverside Publishing.
- Olsen, R. K., Pangelinan, M. M., Bogulski, C., Chakravarty, M. M., Luk, G., Grady, C. L., & Bialystok, E. (2015). Research report: The effect of lifelong bilingualism on regional grey and white matter volume. Brain Research, 1612, 128–139. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2015.02.034
- Ostrosky-Solis, F., Arellano, M., & Perez, M. (2004). Can learning to read and write change the brain organization? An electrophysiological study. International Journal of Psychology, 39(1), 27–35. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590344000268
- Ostrosky-Solis, F., Lopez-Arango, G., & Ardila, A. (2000). Sensitivity and specificity of the Mini-mental state examination in a Spanish-Speaking population. Applied Neuropsychology, 7(1), 25–31. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324826AN0701_4
- Pena-Casanova, J., Quinones-Ubeda, S., Gramunt-Fombuena, N., Quintana-Aparicio, M., Aguilar, M., Badenes, D., Cerulla, N., Molinuevo, J. L., Ruiz, E., Robles, A., Barquero, M. S., Antunez, C., Martinez-Parra, C., Frank-Garcia, A., Fernandez, M., Alfonso, V., Sol, J. M., & Blesa, R. (2009). Spanish multicenter normative studies (NEURONORMA Project): Norms for the verbal fluency tests. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24(4), 395–411. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acp042
- Petersen, R. C. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256(3), 183–194.
- Petersson, K. M., Reis, A., Askelof, S., Castro-Caldas, A., & Ingvar, M. (2000). Language processing modulated by literacy: A network analysis of verbal repetition in literate and illiterate subjects. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(3), 364–382. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1162/089892900562147
- Razani, J., Burciaga, J., Madore, M., & Wong, J. (2007). Effects of acculturation on tests of attention and information processing in an ethnically diverse group. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(3), 333–341. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.008
- Reas, E. T., Hagler, D. J., White, N. S., Kuperman, J. M., Bartsch, H., Wierenga, C. E., Galasko, D., Brewer, J. B., Dale, A. M., & McEvoy, L. K. (2018). Microstructural brain changes track cognitive decline in mild cognitive impairment. NeuroImage: Clinical, 20, 883–891. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2018.09.027
- Reitan, R. M. (1958). Validity of the Trail making test as an indicator of organic brain damage. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 8(3), 271–276. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2466/PMS.8.7.271-276
- Reitan, R. M., & Wolfson, D. (1993). The Halstead-Reitan neuropsychological test battery: Theory and clinical interpretation (2nd ed.). Neuropsychology press.
- Roe, C. M., Xiong, C., Miller, J. P., & Morris, J. C. (2007). Education and Alzheimer disease without dementia. Neurology, 68(3), 223–228. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000251303.50459.8a
- Rosselli, M., & Ardila, A. (2018). Neuropsychology of bilingualism. In: Lantolf, J.P., Poehner, M., & Swain, M. (Eds). Routledge handbook of sociocultural theory and second language teaching and learning (pp. 139–155). Routledge.
- Rosselli, M., Ardila, A., Araujo, K., Weekes, V. A., Caracciolo, V., Padilla, M., & Ostrosky-Solí, F. (2000). Verbal fluency and repetition skills in healthy older Spanish-English bilinguals. Applied Neuropsychology, 7(1), 17–24. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324826AN0701_3
- Rosselli, M., Ardila, A., Matute, E., & Vélez-Uribe, I. (2014). Language development across the life span: A neuropsychological/neuroimaging perspective. Neuroscience Journal, 2014, 1–21. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/585237
- Sadat, J., Martin, C. D., Alario, F. X., & Costa, A. (2012). Characterizing the bilingual disadvantage in noun phrase production. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 41(3), 159–179. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-011-9183-1
- Saez, P. A., Bender, H. A., Barr, W. B., Rivera Mindt, M., Morrison, C. E., Hassenstab, J., Rodriguez, M., & Vazquez, B. (2014). The impact of education and acculturation on nonverbal neuropsychological test performance among Latino/a patients with epilepsy. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 21(2), 108–119. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09084282.2013.768996
- Salvatierra, J., & Rosselli, M. (2004). Verbal fluency in bilingual Alzheimer’s patients. Thirty second annual international neuropsychological society conference, Baltimore, USA.
- Schoenhofen-Sharp, E., & Gatz, M. (2011). The relationship between education and dementia: An updated systematic review. Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, 25(4), 289–304. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/WAD.0b013e318211c83c
- Schweizer, T. A., Ware, J., Fischer, C. E., Craik, F. I., & Bialystok, E. (2012). Bilingualism as a contributor to cognitive reserve: Evidence from brain atrophy in Alzheimer’s disease. Cortex, 48(8), 991–996. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2011.04.009
- Shim, G., Choi, K.-Y., Kim, D., Suh, S-i., Lee, S., Jeong, H.-G., & Jeong, B. (2017). Predicting neurocognitive function with hippocampal volumes and DTI metrics in patients with Alzheimer’s dementia and mid cognitive impairment. Brain and Behavior, 7(9), e00766. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.766
- Sisco, S., Gross, A. L., Shih, R. A., Sachs, B. C., Glymour, M. M., Bangen, K. J., Benitez, A., Skinner, J., Schneider, B. C., & Manly, J. J. (2015). The role of early-life educational quality and literacy in explaining racial disparities in cognition in late life. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 70(4), 557–567. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt133
- Solé-Padullés, C., Bartrés-Faz, D., Junqué, C., Vendrell, P., Rami, L., Clemente, I. C., Bosch, B., Villar, A., Bargalló, N., Jurado, M. A., Barrios, M., & Molinuevo, J. L. (2009). Brain structure and function related to cognitive reserve variables in normal aging, mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiology of Aging, 30(7), 1114–1124. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.10.008
- Stein, M., Federspiel, A., Koenig, T., Wirth, M., Strik, W., Wiest, R., Brandeis, D., & Dierks, T. (2012). Structural plasticity in the language system related to increased second language proficiency. Cortex, 48(4), 458–465. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2010.10.007
- Stern, Y. (2009). Cognitive Reserve. Neuropsychologia, 47(10), 2015–2028. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004
- Taler, V., Johns, B. T., Young, K., Sheppard, C., & Jones, M. N. (2013). A computational analysis of semantic structure in bilingual verbal fluency performance. Journal of Memory and Language, 69(4), 607–618. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2013.08.004
- Tang, M.-X., Cross, P., Andrews, H., Jacobs, D. M., Small, S., Bell, K., Merchant, C., Lantigua, R., Costa, R., Stern, Y., & Mayeux, R. (2001). Incidence of AD in African-Americans, Caribbean Hispanics, and whites in northern Manhattan. Neurology, 56(1), 49–56.
- U.S. Census Bureau (2015). Miami Dade County, FL. Retrieved from https://datausa.io/profile/geo/miami-dade-county-fl/
- U.S. Census Bureau (2017). Projected Race and Hispanic Origin. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2017/demo/popproj/2017-summary-tables.html
- Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. MIT Press.
- Wallace, P. M., Pomery, E. A., Latimer, A. E., Martinez, J. L., & Salovey, P. (2010). A review of acculturation measures and their utility in studies promoting Latino health. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 32(1), 37–54. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986309352341
- Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler memory scale (3rd ed.). The psychological Corporation.