References
- Abe-Kim, J., Okazaki, S., & Goto, S. G. (2001). Unidimensional versus multidimensional approaches to the assessment of acculturation for Asian American populations. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 7(3), 232–246. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.7.3.232
- Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. (2007). Bilingual language production: The neurocognition of language representation and control. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20(3), 242–275. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2006.10.003
- Agranovich, A. V., & Puente, A. E. (2007). Do Russian and American normal adults perform similarly on neuropsychological tests? Preliminary findings on the relationship between culture and test performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 22(3), 273–282. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.003
- Anderson, J. A., Mak, L., Chahi, A. K., & Bialystok, E. (2018). The language and social background questionnaire: Assessing degree of bilingualism in a diverse population. Behavior Research Methods, 50(1), 250–263. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0867-9
- Anderson, J. A., Saleemi, S., & Bialystok, E. (2017). Neuropsychological assessments of cognitive aging in monolingual and bilingual older adults. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 43(A), 17–27. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2016.08.001
- Antoniou, M. (2019). The advantages of bilingualism debate. Annual Review of Linguistics, 5(1), 395–415. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011718-011820
- Antoniou, M., & Wright, S. M. (2017). Uncovering the mechanisms responsible for why language learning may promote healthy cognitive aging. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2217. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02217
- Ardila, A. (2005). Cultural values underlying psychometric cognitive testing. Neuropsychology Review, 15(4), 185–195. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-005-9180-y
- Ardila, A. (2007a). The impact of culture on neuropsychological test performance. In N. W. Nelson & M. O. Pontón (Eds.), International handbook of cross-cultural neuropsychology (pp. 23–44). Routledge.
- Ardila, A. (2007b). Toward the development of a cross-linguistic naming test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(3), 297–307. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.016
- Arentoft, A., Byrd, D., Robbins, R. N., Monzones, J., Miranda, C., Rosario, A., Coulehan, K., Fuentes, A., Kubo Germano, K., D’Aquila, E., Sheynin, J., Fraser, F., Morgello, S., & Rivera Mindt, M. (2012). Multidimensional effects of acculturation on English-language neuropsychological test performance among HIV + Caribbean Latinas/os. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 34(8), 814–825. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2012.683856
- Bak, T. H. (2016). The impact of bilingualism on cognitive ageing and dementia: Finding a path through a forest of confounding variables. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(1–2), 205–226. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.15002.bak
- Bak, T. H., Nissan, J. J., Allerhand, M. M., & Deary, I. J. (2014). Does bilingualism influence cognitive aging? Annals of Neurology, 75(6), 959–963. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.24158
- Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio, 78(2), 490–498.
- Berry, J. W. (2007). Acculturation strategies and adaptation. In J. E. Lansford, K. Deater-Deckard, & M. H. Bornstein (Eds.), Duke series in child development and public policy. Immigrant families in contemporary society (p. 69–82). Guilford Press.
- Bialystok, E., & Feng, X. (2009). Language proficiency and executive control in proactive interference: Evidence from monolingual and bilingual children and adults. Brain and Language, 109(2–3), 93–100. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2008.09.001
- Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Freedman, M. (2007). Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia. Neuropsychologia, 45(2), 459–464. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009
- Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Luk, G. (2012). Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 240–250. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.03.001
- Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., Binns, M. A., Ossher, L., & Freedman, M. (2014). Effects of bilingualism on the age of onset and progression of MCI and AD: Evidence from executive function tests. Neuropsychology, 28(2), 290–304. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000023
- Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging, 19(2), 290–303. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.290
- Bialystok, E., Craik, F., & Luk, G. (2008). Cognitive control and lexical access in younger and older bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(4), 859–873. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.34.4.859
- Bialystok, E., Poarch, G., Luo, L., & Craik, F. I. (2014). Effects of bilingualism and aging on executive function and working memory. Psychology and Aging, 29(3), 696–705. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037254
- Blumenfeld, H. K., Bobb, S. C., & Marian, V. (2016). The role of language proficiency, cognate status and word frequency in the assessment of Spanish–English bilinguals’ verbal fluency. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 18(2), 190–201. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3109/17549507.2015.1081288
- Boone, K. B., Victor, T. L., Wen, J., Razani, J., & Pontón, M. (2007). The association between neuropsychological scores and ethnicity, language, and acculturation variables in a large patient population. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(3), 355–365. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.08.005
- Calvo, N., García, A. M., Manoiloff, L., & Ibáñez, A. (2016). Bilingualism and cognitive reserve: a critical overview and a plea for methodological innovations. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 7, 249. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2015.00249
- Casaletto, K. B., & Heaton, R. K. (2017). Neuropsychological assessment: Past and future. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 23(9–10), 778–790. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617717001060
- Casaletto, K. B., Umlauf, A., Beaumont, J., Gershon, R., Slotkin, J., Akshoomoff, N., & Heaton, R. K. (2015). Demographically corrected normative standards for the English version of the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 21(5), 378–391. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617715000351
- Chertkow, H., Whitehead, V., Phillips, N., Wolfson, C., Atherton, J., & Bergman, H. (2010). Multilingualism (but not always bilingualism) delays the onset of Alzheimer disease: Evidence from a bilingual community. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 24(2), 118–125. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181ca1221
- Clare, L., Whitaker, C. J., Craik, F. I. M., Bialystok, E., Martyr, A., Martin-Forbes, P. A., Bastable, A. J. M., Pye, K. L., Quinn, C., Thomas, E. M., Gathercole, V. C. M., & Hindle, J. V. (2016). Bilingualism, executive control, and age at diagnosis among people with early-stage Alzheimer’s disease in Wales. Journal of Neuropsychology, 10(2), 163–185. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/jnp.12061
- Clare, L., Whitaker, C. J., Martyr, A., Martin-Forbes, P. A., Bastable, A. J. M., Pye, K. L., Quinn, C., Thomas, E. M., Mueller Gathercole, V. C., & Hindle, J. V. (2016). Executive control in older Welsh monolinguals and bilinguals. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 28(4), 412–426. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2016.1148041
- Coderre, E. L., Van Heuven, W. J., & Conklin, K. (2013). The timing and magnitude of Stroop interference and facilitation in monolinguals and bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 16(2), 420–441. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728912000405
- Coffey, D. M., Marmol, L., Schock, L., & Adams, W. (2005). The influence of acculturation on the Wisconsin card sorting test by Mexican Americans. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 20(6), 795–803. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2005.04.009
- Costumero, V., Marin-Marin, L., Calabria, M., Belloch, V., Escudero, J., Baquero, M., Hernandez, M., Ruiz de Miras, J., Costa, A., Parcet, M.-A., & Ávila, C. (2020). A cross-sectional and longitudinal study on the protective effect of bilingualism against dementia using brain atrophy and cognitive measures. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy, 12(1), 11–10. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-020-0581-1
- Cox, S. R., Bak, T. H., Allerhand, M., Redmond, P., Starr, J. M., Deary, I. J., & MacPherson, S. E. (2016). Bilingualism, social cognition and executive functions: A tale of chickens and eggs. Neuropsychologia, 91, 299–306. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.08.029
- Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1997). PPVT-III: Peabody picture vocabulary test. American Guidance Service.
- Eng, N., Vonk, J. M., Salzberger, M., & Yoo, N. (2019). A cross-linguistic comparison of category and letter fluency: Mandarin and English. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 72(3), 651–660. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021818765997
- Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). “Mini-mental state”: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189–198. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6
- Franzen, S., van den Berg, E., Goudsmit, M., Jurgens, C. K., van de Wiel, L., Kalkisim, Y., Uysal-Bozkir, Ö., Ayhan, Y., Nielsen, T. R., & Papma, J. M. (2020). A systematic review of neuropsychological tests for the assessment of dementia in non-western, low-educated or illiterate populations. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 26(3), 331–351. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617719000894
- Friesen, D. C., Luo, L., Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2015). Proficiency and control in verbal fluency performance across the lifespan for monolinguals and bilinguals. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 30(3), 238–250. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2014.918630
- Gasquoine, P. G., Croyle, K. L., Cavazos-Gonzalez, C., & Sandoval, O. (2007). Language of administration and neuropsychological test performance in neurologically intact Hispanic American bilingual adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 22(8), 991–1001. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.08.003
- Gasquoine, P. G., & Gonzalez, C. D. (2012). Using monolingual neuropsychological test norms with bilingual Hispanic Americans: Application of an individual comparison standard. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 27(3), 268–276. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acs004
- Giezen, M. R., & Emmorey, K. (2017). Evidence for a bimodal bilingual disadvantage in letter fluency. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 20(1), 42–48. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728916000596
- Gollan, T. H., & Brown, A. S. (2006). From tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) data to theoretical implications in two steps: When more TOTs means better retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 135(3), 462–483. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.135.3.462
- Gollan, T. H., Fennema-Notestine, C., Montoya, R. I., & Jernigan, T. L. (2007). The bilingual effect on Boston Naming Test performance. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(2), 197–208. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617707070038
- Gollan, T. H., Montoya, R. I., Cera, C., & Sandoval, T. C. (2008). More use almost always means a smaller frequency effect: Aging, bilingualism, and the weaker links hypothesis. Journal of Memory and Language, 58(3), 787–814. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2007.07.001
- Gollan, T. H., Slattery, T. J., Goldenberg, D., Van Assche, E., Duyck, W., & Rayner, K. (2011). Frequency drives lexical access in reading but not in speaking: The frequency-lag hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 140(2), 186–209. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022256
- Gordon, J. K., Young, M., & Garcia, C. (2018). Why do older adults have difficulty with semantic fluency? Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 25(6), 803–828. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2017.1374328
- Gracey, D. J., & Morris, R. G. (2007). Neuropsychological assessment in dementia. Psychiatry, 6(12), 498–502. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mppsy.2007.09.005
- Green, D. (1998). Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1(2), 67–81. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728998000133
- Green, D. W., & Abutalebi, J. (2013). Language control in bilinguals: The adaptive control hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 515–530. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.796377
- Harvey, P. D. (2012). Clinical applications of neuropsychological assessment. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 14(1), 91–99.
- Heaton, R. K., Ryan, L., & Grant, I. (2009). Demographic influences and use of demographically corrected norms in neuropsychological assessment. Neuropsychological Assessment of Neuropsychiatric and Neuromedical Disorders, 3, 127–155.
- Henry, J. D., Crawford, J. R., & Phillips, L. H. (2004). Verbal fluency performance in dementia of the Alzheimer’s type: A meta-analysis. Neuropsychologia, 42(9), 1212–1222. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.02.001
- Hill, T. D., Angel, J. L., Balistreri, K. S., & Herrera, A. P. (2012). Immigrant status and cognitive functioning in late-life: An examination of gender variations in the healthy immigrant effect. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 75(12), 2076–2084. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.04.005
- Hulstijn, J. H. (2012). The construct of language proficiency in the study of bilingualism from a cognitive perspective. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(2), 422–433. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728911000678
- Ihle, A., Oris, M., Fagot, D., & Kliegel, M. (2016). The relation of the number of languages spoken to performance in different cognitive abilities in old age. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 38(10), 1103–1114. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2016.1197184
- Kavé, G., & Knafo-Noam, A. (2015). Lifespan development of phonemic and semantic fluency: Universal increase, differential decrease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 37(7), 751–763. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2015.1065958
- Kisser, J. E., Wendell, C. R., Spencer, R. J., & Waldstein, S. R. (2012). Neuropsychological performance of native versus non-native English speakers. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(7), 749–755. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acs082
- Kmet, L. M., Cook, L. S., & Lee, R. C. (2004). Standard quality assessment criteria for evaluating primary research papers from a variety of fields. Retrieved May 11, 2020, from http://www.ihe.ca/download/standard_quality_assessment_criteria_for_evaluating_primary_research_papers_from_a_variety_of_fields.pdf
- Kousaie, S., & Phillips, N. A. (2017). A behavioural and electrophysiological investigation of the effect of bilingualism on aging and cognitive control. Neuropsychologia, 94, 23–35. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.11.013
- Kousaie, S., Sheppard, C., Lemieux, M., Monetta, L., & Taler, V. (2014). Executive function and bilingualism in young and older adults. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 250. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00250
- Kowoll, M. E., Degen, C., Gladis, S., & Schröder, J. (2015). Neuropsychological profiles and verbal abilities in lifelong bilinguals with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 45(4), 1257–1268. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-142880
- Kroll, J. F. (2009). The consequences of bilingualism for the mind and the brain. Psychological Science in the Public Interest: A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 10(3), i–ii. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100610389314
- Kroll, J. F., Bobb, S. C., Misra, M., & Guo, T. (2008). Language selection in bilingual speech: Evidence for inhibitory processes. Acta Psychologica, 128(3), 416–430. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.02.001
- Kroll, J. F., & Gollan, T. H. (2013). Speech planning in two languages. In M. Goldrick, V. Ferreira, & M. Miozzo (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of language production. Oxford University Press.
- Lee, L., Packer, T. L., Tang, S. H., & Girdler, S. (2008). Self-management education programs for age-related macular degeneration: A systematic review. Australasian Journal on Ageing, 27(4), 170–176. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-6612.2008.00298.x
- Linck, J. A., Hoshino, N., & Kroll, J. F. (2008). Cross-language lexical processes and inhibitory control. The Mental Lexicon, 3(3), 349–374. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1075/ml.3.3.06lin
- Llorente, A. M., Pontón, M. O., Taussig, I. M., & Satz, P. (1999). Patterns of American immigration and their influence on the acquisition of neuropsychological norms for Hispanics. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 14(7), 603–614. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/14.7.603
- Loewenstein, D. A., Argüelles, T., Argüelles, S., & Linn-Fuentes, P. (1994). Potential cultural bias in the neuropsychological assessment of the older adult. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16(4), 623–629. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/01688639408402673
- Lopez-Class, M., Castro, F. G., & Ramirez, A. G. (2011). Conceptions of acculturation: A review and statement of critical issues. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 72(9), 1555–1562. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.03.011
- Luo, L., Craik, F. I., Moreno, S., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Bilingualism interacts with domain in a working memory task: Evidence from aging. Psychology and Aging, 28(1), 28–34. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030875
- Luo, L., Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2010). Effect of language proficiency and executive control on verbal fluency performance in bilinguals. Cognition, 114(1), 29–41. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2009.08.014
- Mahendra, N., Plante, E., Magloire, J., Milman, L., & Trouard, T. P. (2003). fMRI variability and the localization of languages in the bilingual brain. Neuroreport, 14(9), 1225–1228. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/00001756-200307010-00007
- Manly, J. J., Miller, S. W., Heaton, R. K., Byrd, D., Reilly, J., Velasquez, R. J., Saccuzzo, D. P., & Grant, I. (1998). The effect of African-American acculturation on neuropsychological test performance in normal and HIV-positive individuals. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 4(3), 291–302. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617798002914
- Massa, E., Köpke, B., & El Yagoubi, R. (2020). Age-related effect on language control and executive control in bilingual and monolingual speakers: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. Neuropsychologia, 138, 107336. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107336
- Meinzer, M., Flaisch, T., Wilser, L., Eulitz, C., Rockstroh, B., Conway, T., Gonzalez-Rothi, L., & Crosson, B. (2009). Neural signatures of semantic and phonemic fluency in young and old adults. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(10), 2007–2018. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2009.21219
- Mindt, M. R., Arentoft, A., Kubo Germano, K., D’Aquila, E., Scheiner, D., Pizzirusso, M., Sandoval, T. C., & Gollan, T. H. (2008). Neuropsychological, cognitive, and theoretical considerations for evaluation of bilingual individuals. Neuropsychology Review, 18(3), 255–268. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-008-9069-7
- Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), 264–269. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135
- Mungas, D., Early, D. R., Glymour, M. M., Zeki Al Hazzouri, A., & Haan, M. N. (2018). Education, bilingualism, and cognitive trajectories: Sacramento Area Latino Aging Study (SALSA). Neuropsychology, 32(1), 77–88. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000356
- Nasreddine, Z. S., Phillips, N. A., Bédirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Collin, I., Cummings, J. L., & Chertkow, H. (2005). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(4), 695–699. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x
- Nielsen, T. R., Antelius, E., & Waldemar, G. (2019). Cognitive advantages in adult Turkish bilingual immigrants–A question of the chicken or the egg. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 34(2), 115–129. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10823-019-09375-7
- Nielsen, T. R., Segers, K., Vanderaspoilden, V., Bekkhus-Wetterberg, P., Minthon, L., Pissiota, A., Bjørkløf, G. H., Beinhoff, U., Tsolaki, M., Gkioka, M., & Waldemar, G. (2018). Performance of middle-aged and elderly European minority and majority populations on a cross-cultural neuropsychological test battery (CNTB). The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 32(8), 1411–1430. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2018.1430256
- Norman, M. A., Evans, J. D., Miller, W. S., & Heaton, R. K. (2000). Demographically corrected norms for the California verbal learning test. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 22(1), 80–94. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1076/1380-3395(200002)22:1;1-8;FT080
- Ossher, L., Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., Murphy, K. J., & Troyer, A. K. (2013). The effect of bilingualism on amnestic mild cognitive impairment. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 68(1), 8–12. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbs038
- Padilla, C., Mendez, M. F., Jimenez, E. E., & Teng, E. (2016). Bilingualism in older Mexican-American immigrants is associated with higher scores on cognitive screening. BMC Geriatrics, 16(1), 189. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-016-0368-1
- Papageorgiou, A., Bright, P., Periche Tomas, E., & Filippi, R. (2019). Evidence against a cognitive advantage in the older bilingual population. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 72(6), 1354–1363. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021818796475
- Park, D. C., & Huang, C. M. (2010). Culture wires the brain: A cognitive neuroscience perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 5(4), 391–400. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610374591
- Patra, A., Bose, A., & Marinis, T. (2020). Performance difference in verbal fluency in bilingual and monolingual speakers. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(1), 204–218. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918001098
- Perani, D., Abutalebi, J., Paulesu, E., Brambati, S., Scifo, P., Cappa, S. F., & Fazio, F. (2003). The role of age of acquisition and language usage in early, high‐proficient bilinguals: An fMRI study during verbal fluency. Human Brain Mapping, 19(3), 170–182. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.10110
- Portocarrero, J. S., Burright, R. G., & Donovick, P. J. (2007). Vocabulary and verbal fluency of bilingual and monolingual college students. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(3), 415–422. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.015
- Prior, A., & MacWhinney, B. (2010). A bilingual advantage in task switching. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13(2), 253–262. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728909990526
- Roberts, P. M., Garcia, L. J., Desrochers, A., & Hernandez, D. (2002). English performance of proficient bilingual adults on the Boston Naming Test. Aphasiology, 16(4–6), 635–645. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/02687030244000220
- Rosselli, M., Ardila, A., Araujo, K., Weekes, V. A., Caracciolo, V., Padilla, M., & Ostrosky-Solí, F. (2000). Verbal fluency and repetition skills in healthy older Spanish-English bilinguals. Applied Neuropsychology, 7(1), 17–24. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324826AN0701_3
- Rosselli, M., Loewenstein, D. A., Curiel, R. E., Penate, A., Torres, V. L., Lang, M., Greig, M. T., Barker, W. W., & Duara, R. (2019). Effects of bilingualism on verbal and nonverbal memory measures in mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 25(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S135561771800070X
- Sabourin, L., & Vīnerte, S. (2015). The bilingual advantage in the Stroop task: Simultaneous vs. early bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(2), 350–355. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728914000704
- Salmon, D. P., & Bondi, M. W. (2009). Neuropsychological assessment of dementia. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 257–282. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190024
- Sandoval, T. C., Gollan, T. H., Ferreira, V. S., & Salmon, D. P. (2010). What causes the bilingual disadvantage in verbal fluency? The dual-task analogy. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13(2), 231–252. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728909990514
- Schumann, J. H. (1986). Research on the acculturation model for second language acquisition. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 7(5), 379–392. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.1986.9994254
- Segalowitz, N., & Frenkiel-Fishman, S. (2005). Attention control and ability level in a complex cognitive skill: Attention shifting and second-language proficiency. Memory & Cognition, 33(4), 644–653. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195331
- Shao, Z., Janse, E., Visser, K., & Meyer, A. S. (2014). What do verbal fluency tasks measure? Predictors of verbal fluency performance in older adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 772. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00772
- Sheffield, K. M., & Peek, M. K. (2009). Neighborhood context and cognitive decline in older Mexican Americans: Results from the Hispanic Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly. American Journal of Epidemiology, 169(9), 1092–1101. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwp005
- Sheppard, C., Kousaie, S., Monetta, L., & Taler, V. (2016). Performance on the Boston Naming Test in bilinguals. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 22(3), 350–363. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S135561771500123X
- Singh, N., & Mishra, R. K. (2013). Second language proficiency modulates conflict-monitoring in an oculomotor Stroop task: Evidence from Hindi-English bilinguals. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 322. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00322
- Soltani, M., Moradi, N., Rezaei, H., Hosseini, M., & Jasemi, E. (2019). Comparison of verbal fluency in monolingual and bilingual elderly in Iran. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 1–8. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2019.1594234
- Suarez, P. A., Gollan, T. H., Heaton, R., Grant, I., & Cherner, M. (2014). Second-language fluency predicts native language Stroop effects: Evidence from Spanish–English bilinguals. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 20(3), 342–348. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617714000058
- Teng, E. L., & Chui, H. C. (1987). The Modified Mini-Mental State (3MS) examination. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 41(2), 114–121.
- Touradji, P., Manly, J. J., Jacobs, D. M., & Stern, Y. (2001). Neuropsychological test performance: A study of non-Hispanic White elderly. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 23(5), 643–649. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1076/jcen.23.5.643.1246
- Tse, C. S., & Altarriba, J. (2012). The effects of first-and second-language proficiency on conflict resolution and goal maintenance in bilinguals: Evidence from reaction time distributional analyses in a Stroop task. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(3), 663–676. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728912000077
- Tzelgov, J., Henik, A., & Leiser, D. (1990). Controlling Stroop interference: Evidence from a bilingual task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16(5), 760–771. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.16.5.760
- Walker, A. J., Batchelor, J., Shores, E. A., & Jones, M. (2010). Effects of cultural background on WAIS‐III and WMS‐III performances after moderate‐severe traumatic brain injury. Australian Psychologist, 45(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00050060903428210
- Wartenburger, I., Heekeren, H. R., Abutalebi, J., Cappa, S. F., Villringer, A., & Perani, D. (2003). Early setting of grammatical processing in the bilingual brain. Neuron, 37(1), 159–170. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(02)01150-9
- Wattendorf, E., & Festman, J. (2008). Images of the multilingual brain: The effect of age of second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 28, 3–24. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190508080033
- Wong, T. M. (2000). Neuropsychological assessment and intervention with Asian Americans. In E. Fletcher-Janzen, T. L. Strickland, & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural neuropsychology (pp. 43–53). Springer.
- World Health Organization. (1992). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. World Health Organization.
- Xu, H., Zhang, Y., & Wu, B. (2017). Association between migration and cognitive status among middle-aged and older adults: A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 17(1), 184. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-017-0585-2
- Yeung, C. M., John, P. D. S., Menec, V., & Tyas, S. L. (2014). Is bilingualism associated with a lower risk of dementia in community-living older adults? Cross-sectional and prospective analyses. Alzheimer Disease and Assoc Disorders, 28(4), 326–332. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/WAD.0000000000000019
- Zahodne, L. B., Schofield, P. W., Farrell, M. T., Stern, Y., & Manly, J. J. (2014). Bilingualism does not alter cognitive decline or dementia risk among Spanish-speaking immigrants. Neuropsychology, 28(2), 238–246. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000014
- Zied, M. K., Phillipe, A., Pinon, K., Havet-Thomassin, V., Aubin, G., Roy, A., & Le Gall, D. (2004). Bilingualism and adult differences in inhibitory mechanisms: Evidence from a bilingual Stroop task. Brain and Cognition, 54(3), 254–256. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2004.02.036
- Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983). The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 67(6), 361–363. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x