Working memory training: Taking a step back to retool and create a bridge between clinical and neuroimaging research methods

References

• Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Snyder, A. Z., Vincent, J. L., Lustig, C., Head, D., Raichle, M. E., & Buckner, R. L. (2007). Disruption of large-scale brain systems in advanced aging. Neuron, 56(5), 924–935. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.038
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnould, A., Dromer, E., Rochat, L., Van der Linden, M., & Azouvi, P. (2016). Neurobehavioral and self-awareness changes after traumatic brain injury: Towards new multidimensional approaches. Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, 59(1), 18–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rehab.2015.09.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Au, J., Gibson, B. C., Bunarjo, K., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2020). Quantifying the difference between active and passive control groups in cognitive interventions using two meta-analytical approaches. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 4(2), 192–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-020-00164-6
   Google Scholar
• Au, J., Sheehan, E., Tsai, N., Duncan, G. J., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2015). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(2), 366–377. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bäckman, L., Nyberg, L., Soveri, A., Johansson, J., Andersson, M., Dahlin, E., Neely, A. S., Virta, J., Laine, M., & Rinne, J. O. (2011). Effects of working-memory training on striatal dopamine release. Science, 333(6043), 718–718. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204978
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bäckman, L., Waris, O., Johansson, J., Andersson, M., Rinne, J. O., Alakurtti, K., Soveri, A., Laine, M., & Nyberg, L. (2017). Increased dopamine release after working-memory updating training: Neurochemical correlates of transfer. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 7160. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-07577-y
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Barnett, S. M., & Ceci, S. J. (2002). When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 612–637. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biel, D., Steiger, T. K., Volkmann, T., Jochems, N., & Bunzeck, N. (2020). The gains of a 4-week cognitive training are not modulated by novelty. Human Brain Mapping, 41(10), 2596–2610. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.24965
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birks, J. S., Chong, L. Y., & Grimley Evans, J. (2015). Rivastigmine for Alzheimer's disease. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 9(9), CD001191. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001191.pub4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bishop, N. A., Lu, T., & Yankner, B. A. (2010). Neural mechanisms of ageing and cognitive decline. Nature, 464(7288), 529–535. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08983
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogdanova, Y., Yee, M. K., Ho, V. T., & Cicerone, K. D. (2016). Computerized cognitive rehabilitation of attention and executive function in acquired brain injury: A systematic review. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 31(6), 419–433. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000203
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boot, W. R., Simons, D. J., Stothart, C., & Stutts, C. (2013). The pervasive problem with placebos in psychology: Why active control groups are not sufficient to rule out placebo effects. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(4), 445–454. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613491271
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brehmer, Y., Kalpouzos, G., Wenger, E., & Lövdén, M. (2014). Plasticity of brain and cognition in older adults. Psychological Research, 78(6), 790–802. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-014-0587-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brehmer, Y., Rieckmann, A., Bellander, M., Westerberg, H., Fischer, H., & Backman, L. (2011). Neural correlates of training-related working-memory gains in old age. NeuroImage, 58(4), 1110–1120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.06.079
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buschkuehl, M., Hernandez-Garcia, L., Jaeggi, S. M., Bernard, J. A., & Jonides, J. (2014). Neural effects of short-term training on working memory. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 14(1), 147–160. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-013-0244-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CANTAB®. (2019). Cognitive assessment software Cambridge Cognition. Retrieved from All rights reserved. www.cantab.com
   Google Scholar
• Chung, C. S., Pollock, A., Campbell, T., Durward, B. R., & Hagen, S. (2013). Cognitive rehabilitation for executive dysfunction in adults with stroke or other adult non-progressive acquired brain damage. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2013(4):, CD008391. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008391.pub2
   Google Scholar
• Clark, C. M., Lawlor-Savage, L., & Goghari, V. M. (2017). Functional brain activation associated with working memory training and transfer. Behavioural Brain Research, 334, 34–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2017.07.030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colom, R., Román, F. J., Abad, F. J., Shih, P. C., Privado, J., Froufe, M., Escorial, S., Martínez, K., Burgaleta, M., Quiroga, M. A., Karama, S., Haier, R. J., Thompson, P. M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2013). Adaptive n-back training does not improve fluid intelligence at the construct level: Gains on individual tests suggest that training may enhance visuospatial processing. Intelligence, 41(5), 712–727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2013.09.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craig, P., Dieppe, P., Macintyre, S., Michie, S., Nazareth, I., & Petticrew, M. (2008). Developing and evaluating complex interventions: The new Medical Research Council guidance. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 337, a1655. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a1655
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Culbertson, W. C., & Zillmer, E. A. (1998). The Tower of London (DX): A standardized approach to assessing executive functioning in children. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 13(3), 285–301. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/13.3.285
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahlin, E., Neely, A. S., Larsson, A., Backman, L., & Nyberg, L. (2008). Transfer of learning after updating training mediated by the striatum. Science, 320(5882), 1510–1512. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1155466
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeTore, N. R., Mueser, K. T., Byrd, J. A., & McGurk, S. R. (2019). Cognitive functioning as a predictor of response to comprehensive cognitive remediation. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 113, 117–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.03.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dougherty, M. R., Hamovitz, T., & Tidwell, J. W. (2016). Reevaluating the effectiveness of n-back training on transfer through the Bayesian lens: Support for the null. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(1), 306–316. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0865-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Draganski, B., Gaser, C., Busch, V., Schuierer, G., Bogdahn, U., & May, A. (2004). Changes in grey matter induced by training. Nature, 427(6972), 311–312. https://doi.org/10.1038/427311a
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Draganski, B., Gaser, C., Kempermann, G., Kuhn, H. G., Winkler, J., Büchel, C., & May, A. (2006). Temporal and spatial dynamics of brain structure changes during extensive learning. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26(23), 6314–6317. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4628-05.2006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fasotti, L., Kovacs, F., Eling, P. A. T. M., & Brouwer, W. H. (2000). Time pressure management as a compensatory strategy training after closed head injury. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 10(1), 47–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/096020100389291
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feigin, V. L., Forouzanfar, M. H., Krishnamurthi, R., Mensah, G. A., Connor, M., Bennett, D. A., Moran, A. E., Sacco, R. L., Anderson, L., Truelsen, T., O'Donnell, M., Venketasubramanian, N., Barker-Collo, S., Lawes, C. M. M., Wang, W., Shinohara, Y., Witt, E., Ezzati, M., Naghavi, M., & Murray, C. (2014). Global and regional burden of stroke during 1990-2010: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. The Lancet, 383(9913), 245–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61953-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finc, K., Bonna, K., He, X., Lydon-Staley, D. M., Kuhn, S., Duch, W., & Bassett, D. S. (2020). Dynamic reconfiguration of functional brain networks during working memory training. Nature Communications, 11(1), 2435. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15631-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fish, J., Manly, T., Emslie, H., Evans, J. J., & Wilson, B. A. (2008). Compensatory strategies for acquired disorders of memory and planning: Differential effects of a paging system for patients with brain injury of traumatic versus cerebrovascular aetiology. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 79(8), 930–935. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2007.125203
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flegal, K. E., Ragland, J. D., & Ranganath, C. (2019). Adaptive task difficulty influences neural plasticity and transfer of training. NeuroImage, 188, 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.12.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster, J. L., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Draheim, C., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2017). Do the effects of working memory training depend on baseline ability level? Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43(11), 1677–1689. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000426
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galetto, V., & Sacco, K. (2017). Neuroplastic changes induced by cognitive rehabilitation in traumatic brain injury: A review. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 31(9), 800–813. https://doi.org/10.1177/1545968317723748
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gates, N. J., Sachdev, P. S., Singh, M. A. F., & Valenzuela, M. (2011). Cognitive and memory training in adults at risk of dementia: A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 11(1), 55. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2318-11-55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, C. S., Strobach, T., & Schubert, T. (2014). On methodological standards in training and transfer experiments. Psychological Research, 78(6), 756–772. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-013-0535-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallock, H., Collins, D., Lampit, A., Deol, K., Fleming, J., & Valenzuela, M. (2016). Cognitive training for post-acute traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10, 537. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00537
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey, P. D., Balzer, A. M., & Kotwicki, R. J. (2020). Training engagement, baseline cognitive functioning, and cognitive gains with computerized cognitive training: A cross-diagnostic study. Schizophrenia Research: Cognition, 19, 100150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scog.2019.100150
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heinzel, S., Lorenz, R. C., Pelz, P., Heinz, A., Walter, H., Kathmann, N., Rapp, M. A., & Stelzel, C. (2016). Neural correlates of training and transfer effects in working memory in older adults. NeuroImage, 134, 236–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.03.068
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heiss, W. D., Kessler, J., Mielke, R., Szelies, B., & Herholz, K. (1994). Long-term effects of phosphatidylserine, pyritinol, and cognitive training in Alzheimer's disease. A neuropsychological, EEG, and PET investigation. Dementia, 5(2), 88–98. https://doi.org/10.1159/000106702
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hill, N. T., Mowszowski, L., Naismith, S. L., Chadwick, V. L., Valenzuela, M., & Lampit, A. (2017). Computerized cognitive training in older adults with mild cognitive impairment or dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 174(4), 329–340. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16030360
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes, E. A., O'Connor, R. C., Perry, V. H., Tracey, I., Wessely, S., Arseneault, L., Ballard, C., Christensen, H., Cohen Silver, R., Everall, I., Ford, T., John, A., Kabir, T., King, K., Madan, I., Michie, S., Przybylski, A. K., Shafran, R., Sweeney, A., … Bullmore, E. (2020). Multidisciplinary research priorities for the COVID-19 pandemic: A call for action for mental health science. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7(6), 547–560. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30168-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Perrig, W. J. (2008). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(19), 6829–6833. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0801268105
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Shah, P. (2011). Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(25), 10081–10086. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1103228108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Meier, B. (2010). The concurrent validity of the N-back task as a working memory measure. Memory, 18(4), 394–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211003702171
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaschel, R., Sala, S. D., Cantagallo, A., Fahlböck, A., Laaksonen, R., & Kazen, M. (2002). Imagery mnemonics for the rehabilitation of memory: A randomised group controlled trial. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 12(2), 127–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602010143000211
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz, B., Jones, M. R., Shah, P., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2016). Individual Differences and Motivational Effects. In T. Strobach & J. Karbach (Eds.), Cognitive training: An overview of features and applications (pp. 157–166). Springer International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Keith, R. A., Granger, C. V., Hamilton, B. B., & Sherwin, F. S. (1987). The functional independence measure: A new tool for rehabilitation. Advances in Clinical Rehabilitation, 1, 6–18.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Krasny-Pacini, A., Chevignard, M., & Evans, J. (2014). Goal Management Training for rehabilitation of executive functions: A systematic review of effectiveness in patients with acquired brain injury. Disability and Rehabilitation, 36(2), 105–116. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2013.777807
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kühn, S., Schmiedek, F., Noack, H., Wenger, E., Bodammer, N. C., Lindenberger, U., & Lövden, M. (2013). The dynamics of change in striatal activity following updating training. Human Brain Mapping, 34(7), 1530–1541. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.22007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lampit, A., Hallock, H., & Valenzuela, M. (2014). Computerized cognitive training in cognitively healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of effect modifiers. PLoS Medicine, 11(11), e1001756. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001756
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence, T., Helmy, A., Bouamra, O., Woodford, M., Lecky, F., & Hutchinson, P. J. (2016). Traumatic brain injury in England and Wales: Prospective audit of epidemiology, complications and standardised mortality. BMJ Open, 6(11), e012197. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-012197
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine, B., Robertson, I. H., Clare, L., Carter, G., Hong, J., Wilson, B. A., Duncan, J., & Stuss, D. T. (2000). Rehabilitation of executive functioning: An experimental-clinical validation of goal management training. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6(3), 299–312. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355617700633052
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine, B., Schweizer, T. A., O'Connor, C., Turner, G., Gillingham, S., Stuss, D. T., Manly, T., & Robertson, I. H. (2011). Rehabilitation of executive functioning in patients with frontal lobe brain damage with goal management training. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 5, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2011.00009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lincoln, N. B., & Edmans, J. A. (1990). A re-validation of the Rivermead ADL scale for elderly patients with stroke. Age Ageing, 19(1), 19–24. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/19.1.19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loewenstein, D. A., Acevedo, A., Czaja, S. J., & Duara, R. (2004). Cognitive rehabilitation of mildly impaired Alzheimer disease patients on cholinesterase inhibitors. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12(4), 395–402. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajgp.12.4.395
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lövdén, M., Brehmer, Y., Li, S. C., & Lindenberger, U. (2012). Training-induced compensation versus magnification of individual differences in memory performance. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 141. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lustig, C., Shah, P., Seidler, R., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. A. (2009). Aging, training, and the brain: A review and future directions. Neuropsychology Review, 19(4), 504–522. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-009-9119-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maher, C. G., Sherrington, C., Herbert, R. D., Moseley, A. M., & Elkins, M. (2003). Reliability of the PEDro scale for rating quality of randomized controlled trials. Physical Therapy, 83(8), 713–721.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall, G. A., Rentz, D. M., Frey, M. T., Locascio, J. J., Johnson, K. A., & Sperling, R. A. (2011). Executive function and instrumental activities of daily living in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 7(3), 300–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2010.04.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McPherson, K. M., Kayes, N., & Weatherall, M. (2009). A pilot study of self-regulation informed goal setting in people with traumatic brain injury. Clinical Rehabilitation, 23(4), 296–309. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269215509102980
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melby-Lervåg, M., Redick, T. S., & Hulme, C. (2016). Working memory training does not improve performance on measures of intelligence or other measures of “far transfer”: Evidence from a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(4), 512–534. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616635612
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miro-Padilla, A., Bueicheku, E., Ventura-Campos, N., Flores-Compan, M. J., Parcet, M. A., & Avila, C. (2018). Long-term brain effects of N-back training: An fMRI study. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 13(4), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-018-9925-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen, L., Murphy, K., & Andrews, G. (2019). Cognitive and neural plasticity in old age: A systematic review of evidence from executive functions cognitive training. Ageing Research Reviews, 53, 100912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2019.100912
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliver, D., Foot, C., & Humphries, R. (2014). Making our health and care systems fit for an ageing population. King's Fund London.
   Google Scholar
• Owen, A. M., Hampshire, A., Grahn, J. A., Stenton, R., Dajani, S., Burns, A. S., Howard, R. J., & Ballard, C. G. (2010). Putting brain training to the test. Nature, 465(7299), 775–778. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pappa, K., Biswas, V., Flegal, K. E., Evans, J. J., & Baylan, S. (2020). Working memory updating training promotes plasticity & behavioural gains: A systematic review & meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 118, 209–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parsons, T. D. (2016). Ecological validity. In T. D. Parsons (Ed.), Clinical neuropsychology and technology: What’s new and how we can use it (pp. 11–27). Springer International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Pergher, V., Shalchy, M. A., Pahor, A., Van Hulle, M. M., Jaeggi, S. M., & Seitz, A. R. (2020). Divergent research methods limit understanding of working memory training. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 4(1), 100–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-019-00134-7
   Google Scholar
• Ponsford, J., Bayley, M., Wiseman-Hakes, C., Togher, L., Velikonja, D., McIntyre, A., Janzen, S., & Tate, R. (2014). INCOG recommendations for management of cognition following traumatic brain injury, part II: Attention and information processing speed. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 29(4), 321–337. https://doi.org/10.1097/htr.0000000000000072
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rath, J. F., Simon, D., Langenbahn, D. M., Sherr, R. L., & Diller, L. (2003). Group treatment of problem-solving deficits in outpatients with traumatic brain injury: A randomised outcome study. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 13(4), 461–488. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602010343000039
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reitan, R. M. (1958). Validity of the Trail Making Test as an indicator of organic brain damage. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 8(3), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1958.8.3.271
   Google Scholar
• Ryan, T. V., & Ruff, R. M. (1988). The efficacy of structured memory retraining in a group comparison of head trauma patients. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 3(2), 165–179. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/3.2.165
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2019). Cognitive training does not enhance general cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 23(1), 9–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.10.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salminen, T., Kuhn, S., Frensch, P. A., & Schubert, T. (2016). Transfer after dual n-back training depends on striatal activation change. Journal of Neuroscience, 36(39), 10198–10213. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2305-15.2016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherman, D. S., Mauser, J., Nuno, M., & Sherzai, D. (2017). The efficacy of cognitive intervention in mild cognitive impairment (MCI): A meta-analysis of outcomes on neuropsychological measures. Neuropsychology Review, 27(4), 440–484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-017-9363-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherrington, C., Herbert, R. D., Maher, C. G., & Moseley, A. M. (2000). PEDro. A database of randomized trials and systematic reviews in physiotherapy. Manual Therapy, 5(4), 223–226. https://doi.org/10.1054/math.2000.0372
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2012). Is working memory training effective? Psychological Bulletin, 138(4), 628–654. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027473
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shum, D., Fleming, J., Gill, H., Gullo, M. J., & Strong, J. (2011). A randomized controlled trial of prospective memory rehabilitation in adults with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 43(3), 216–223. https://doi.org/10.2340/16501977-0647
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sigmundsdottir, L., Longley, W. A., & Tate, R. L. (2016). Computerised cognitive training in acquired brain injury: A systematic review of outcomes using the International Classification of Functioning (ICF). Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 26(5–6), 673–741. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2016.1140657
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soveri, A., Antfolk, J., Karlsson, L., Salo, B., & Laine, M. (2017). Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24(4), 1077–1096. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-016-1217-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spagnolo, J., Gautier, L., Seppey, M., & D’souza, N. A. (2020). Re-thinking global and public health projects during the COVID-19 pandemic context: Considerations and recommendations for early-and not-so-early-career researchers. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 2(1), 100075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100075
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Spikman, J. M., Boelen, D. H., Lamberts, K. F., Brouwer, W. H., & Fasotti, L. (2010). Effects of a multifaceted treatment program for executive dysfunction after acquired brain injury on indications of executive functioning in daily life. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16(1), 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355617709991020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stamenova, V., & Levine, B. (2019). Effectiveness of goal management training® in improving executive functions: A meta-analysis. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 29(10), 1569–1599. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2018.1438294
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8(3), 448–460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern, Y. (2012). Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease. The Lancet Neurology, 11(11), 1006–1012. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70191-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054651
   Google Scholar
• Tárraga, L., Boada, M., Modinos, G., Espinosa, A., Diego, S., Morera, A., Guitart, M., Balcells, J., López, O. L., & Becker, J. T. (2006). A randomised pilot study to assess the efficacy of an interactive, multimedia tool of cognitive stimulation in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 77(10), 1116–1121. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2005.086074
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tate, R., Kennedy, M., Ponsford, J., Douglas, J., Velikonja, D., Bayley, M., & Stergiou-Kita, M. (2014). INCOG recommendations for management of cognition following traumatic brain injury, part III: Executive function and self-awareness. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 29(4), 338–352. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000068
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taubert, M., Draganski, B., Anwander, A., Müller, K., Horstmann, A., Villringer, A., & Ragert, P. (2010). Dynamic properties of human brain structure: Learning-related changes in cortical areas and associated fiber connections. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30(35), 11670–11677. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.2567-10.2010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, T. W., Waskom, M. L., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2016). Intensive working memory training produces functional changes in large-scale frontoparietal networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 28(4), 575–588. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00916
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, T. W., Waskom, M. L., Garel, K.-L A., Cardenas-Iniguez, C., Reynolds, G. O., Winter, R., Chang, P., Pollard, K., Lala, N., Alvarez, G. A., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2013). Failure of working memory training to enhance cognition or intelligence. PLoS One, 8(5), e63614. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063614
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tosetti, P., Hicks, R. R., Theriault, E., Phillips, A., Koroshetz, W., Draghia-Akli, R., & Workshop, P. (2013). Toward an international initiative for traumatic brain injury research. Journal of Neurotrauma, 30(14), 1211–1222. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2013.2896
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Velikonja, D., Tate, R., Ponsford, J., McIntyre, A., Janzen, S., & Bayley, M. (2014). INCOG recommendations for management of cognition following traumatic brain injury, part V: Memory. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 29(4), 369–386. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000069
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Bastian, C. C., & Oberauer, K. (2014). Effects and mechanisms of working memory training: A review. Psychological Research, 78(6), 803–820. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-013-0524-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weicker, J., Villringer, A., & Thöne-Otto, A. (2016). Can impaired working memory functioning be improved by training? A meta-analysis with a special focus on brain injured patients. Neuropsychology, 30(2), 190–212. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000227
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiemers, E. A., Redick, T. S., & Morrison, A. B. (2019). The influence of individual differences in cognitive ability on working memory training gains. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement: Towards the Integration of Theory and Practice, 3(2), 174–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-018-0111-2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilson, B. A. (1996). BADS: Behavioural assessment of the dysexecutive syndrome. Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, B. A., Emslie, H. C., Quirk, K., & Evans, J. J. (2001). Reducing everyday memory and planning problems by means of a paging system: A randomised control crossover study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 70(4), 477–482. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.70.4.477
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, B., Cockburn, J., Baddeley, A., & Hiorns, R. (1989). The development and validation of a test battery for detecting and monitoring everyday memory problems. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 11(6), 855–870. https://doi.org/10.1080/01688638908400940
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar