359
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Articles

Are you more impulsive with age? Examining age, marital status, and gender on cognitive ageing

ORCID Icon &

References

  • Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2021). Alcohol, tobacco & other drugs in Australia. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/alcohol/alcohol-tobacco-other-drugs-australia/contents/impact-of-covid-19-on-alcohol-and-other-drug-use
  • Andres, P., Guerrini, C., Phillips, L. H., & Perfect, T. J. (2008). Differential effects of ageing on executive and automatic inhibition. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33(2), 101–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/8756564070188
  • Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2020). Gender Indictors, Australia. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/gender-indictors-australia/latest-release#key-statistics
  • Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990). Psychological perspectives on successful ageing: The model of selective optimization with compensation. In P. B. Baltes & M. M. Baltes (Eds.), Successful ageing: Perspectives from the behavioural sciences (pp. 1–34). Cambridge University Press.
  • Brayne, C. (2007). The elephant in the room – Healthy brains in later life, epidemiology and public health. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 8(3), 233–239. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2091
  • Byers, A. L., Yaffe, K., Covinsky, K. E., Friedman, M. B., & Bruce, M. L. (2010). High occurrence of mood and anxiety disorders among older adults: The national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(5), 489–496. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.35
  • Casey, D., Thomas, S., Hocking, D. R., & Kemp-Casey, A. (2016). Graduate-entry medical students: Older and wiser but not less distressed. Australasian Psychiatry, 24(1), 88–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/1039856215612991
  • Castiglione, A., Wagner, J., Anderson, M., & Aron, A. R. (2019). Preventing a thought from coming to mind elicits increased right frontal beta just as stopping action does. Cerebral Cortex, 29(5), 2160–2172. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhz017
  • Charles, S. T., & Carstensen, L. L. (2010). Social and emotional aging. Annual Review of Psychology, 61(1), 383–409. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100448
  • Chico, E., Tous, J. M., Lorenzo-Seva, U., & Vigil-Colet, A. (2003). Spanish adaptation of Dickman’s impulsivity inventory, its relationship to Eysenck’s personality questionnaire. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(8), 1883–1892. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00037-0
  • Choi, J. W., Cha, B., Jang, J., Park, C. S., Kim, B. J., Lee, C. S., & Lee, S. J. (2015). Resilience and impulsivity in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 170(1), 172–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.08.056
  • Churchwell, J. C., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2013). Age-related changes in insula cortical thickness and impulsivity: Significance for emotional development and decision-making. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 6(1), 80–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2013.07.001
  • Cohen, J. (2013). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences. Elsevier Science.
  • Coltheart, M. (1980). Iconic memory and visible persistence. Perception & Psychophysics, 27(3), 183–228. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03204258
  • Cornwell, E. Y., & Waite, L. J. (2009). Social disconnectedness, perceived isolation, and health among older adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 50(1), 31–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650905000103
  • Coyle, J. T. (2003). Use it or lose it-do effortful mental activities protect against dementia? The New England Journal of Medicine, 348(25), 2489–2490. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp030051
  • Craik, F. I. M., Bialystok, E., & Freedman, M. (2010). Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease: Bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve. Neurology, 75(19), 1726–1729. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181fc2a1c
  • Crawford, J. R., & Henry, J. D. (2003). The Depression anxiety stress scales (DASS): Normative data and latent structure in a large non-clinical sample. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42(Pt 2), 111–131. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466503321903544
  • Crawford, J. R., Cayley, C., Lovibond, P. F., Wilson, P. H., & Hartley, C. (2011). Percentile norms and accompanying interval estimates from an Australian general adult population sample for self-report mood scales (BAI, BDI, CRSD, CESD, DASS, DASS-21, STAI-X, STAI-Y, SRDS, and SRAS). Australian Psychologist, 46(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-9544.2010.00003.x
  • Crook, T. H., Youngjohn, J. R., Larrabee, G. J., & Salama, M. (1992). Aging and everyday memory: A cross-cultural study. Neuropsychology, 6(2), 123–136. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.6.2.123
  • Crooks, V. C., Lubben, J., Petitti, D. B., Little, D., & Chiu, V. (2008). Social network, cognitive function, and dementia incidence among elderly women. American Journal of Public Health, 98(7), 1221–1227. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2007.115923
  • Cruwys, T., Stevens, M., & Greenaway, K. (2020). A social identity perspective on Covid-19: Health risk is affected by shared group membership. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 59(3), 584–593. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12391
  • Cyders, M. A., & Coskunpinar, A. (2011). Measurement of constructs using self-report and behavioral lab tasks: Is there overlap in nomothetic span and construct representation for impulsivity? Clinical Psychology Review, 31(6), 965–982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.06.001
  • Danner, D. D., Snowdon, D. A., & Friesen, W. V. (2001). Positive emotions in early life and longevity: Findings from the Nun Study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(5), 804–813. https://doi.org/10.10137/002-3514.80.5.804
  • Deary, I. J., Corley, J., Gow, A. J., Harris, S. E., Houlihan, L. M., Marioni, R. E., Penke, L., Rafnsson, S. B., & Starr, J. M. (2009). Age-associated cognitive decline. British Medical Bulletin, 92(1), 135–152. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldp033
  • Delaloye, C., Moy, G., Baudois, S., De Bilbao, F., Remund, C. D., Hofer, F., Paquier, R., Weber, K., Urben, S., & Giannakopoulos, P. (2009). The contribution of ageing to the understanding of the dimensionality of executive functions. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 49(1), e51–e59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2008.08.001
  • De Pue, S., Gillebert, C., Dierckx, E., Vanderhasselt, M.-A., Raedt, R. D., & Van den Bussche, E. (2021). The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on wellbeing and cognitive functioning of older adults. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 4636 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84127-7
  • Dickman, S. J. (1990). Functional and dysfunctional impulsivity: Personality and cognitive correlates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(1), 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.1.95
  • Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. J Pers Assess, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
  • Dougherty, D. M., Mathias, C. W., Marsh, D. M., & Jagar, A. A. (2005). Laboratory behavioral measures of impulsivity. Behavior Research Methods, 37(1), 82–90. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03206401
  • Elovainio, M., Sommerlad, A., Hakulinen, C., Pulkki-Råback, L., Virtanen, M., Kivimäki, M., & Singh-Manoux, A. (2018). Structural social relations and cognitive ageing trajectories: Evidence from the Whitehall II cohort study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 47(3), 701–708. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyx209
  • Ertel, K. A., Glymour, M. M., & Berkman, L. F. (2008). Effects of social integration on preserving memory function in a nationally representative US elderly population. American Journal of Public Health, 98(7), 1215–1220. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2007.113654
  • Farias, S. T., Mungas, D., Reed, B. R., Cahn-Weiner, D., Jagust, W., Baynes, K., & Decarli, C. (2008). The measurement of everyday cognition (ECog): Scale development and psychometric properties. Neuropsychology, 22(4), 531–544. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.22.4.531
  • Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences . Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193146
  • Fernandez-Duque, D., & Black, S. E. (2006). Attentional networks in normal aging and Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychology, 20(2), 133–143. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.20.2.133
  • Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). Mini-mental state: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6
  • Franzen, M. D., Robbins, D. E., & Sawicki, R. F. (1989). Critical issues in neuropsychology – Reliability and validity in neuropsychological assessment. Plenum Press.
  • Fratiglioni, L., & Wang, H. (2007). Brain reserve hypothesis in dementia. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 12(1), 11–22. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-2007-12103
  • Ghosh, D., & Vogt, A. (2012). Outliers: an evaluation of methodologies. In Joint statistical meetings (pp. 2455–3460). American Statistical Association.
  • Giovacchini, G., Giovannini, E., Borso, E., Lazzeri, P., Riondato, M., Leoncini, R., Duce, V., Mansi, L., & Ciarmiello, A. (2019). The brain cognitive reserve hypothesis: A review with emphasis on the contribution of nuclear medicine neuroimageing techniques. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 234(9), 14865–14872. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.28308
  • Gloster, A. T., Rhoades, H. M., Novy, D., Klotsche, J., Senior, A., Kunik, M., Wilson, N., & Stanley, M. A. (2008). Psychometric properties of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 in older primary care patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 110(3), 248–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2008.01.023
  • Gomez, R., Summers, M., Summers, A., Wolf, A., & Summers, J. (2014). Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21: Measurement and structural invariance across ratings of men and women. Assessment, 21(4), 418–426. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113514106
  • Gray, J., Kim, J., Ciesla, J. R., & Yao, P. (2016). Rasch analysis of the Lubben Social Network Scale-6 (LSNS-6). Journal of Applied Gerontology, 35(5), 508–528. https://doi.org/10.1177/07334648145600468
  • Gronholm-Nyman, P., Rinne, J. O., & Laine, M. (2010). Learning and forgetting new names and objects in MCI and AD. Neuropsychologia, 48(4), 1079–1088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.12.008
  • Gustavson, D. E., Franz, C. E., Panizzon, M. S., Elman, J. A., Jak, A. J., Sanderson-Cimino, M. E., Toomey, R., Lyons, M. J., & Kremen, W. S. (2019). Executive functions and impulsivity predict perception of cognitive decline six years later. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 15(1), 1–476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2019.06.1081
  • Håkansson, K., Rovio, S., Helkala, E.-L., Vilska, A.-R., Winblad, B., Soininen, H., Nissinen, A., Mohammed, A. H., & Kivipelto, M. (2009). Association between mid-life marital status and cognitive function in later life: Population based cohort study. BMJ (Clinical Research ed.), 339(2), b2462–8. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b2462
  • Harada, C. N., Natelson-Love, M. C., & Triebel, K. L. (2013). Normal cognitive ageing. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, 29(4), 737–760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cger.2013.07.002
  • Hardy, J., & Selkoe, D. J. (2002). The amyloid hypothesis of Alzheimer’s disease: Progress and problems on the road to therapeutics. Science (New York, N.Y.), 297(5580), 353–356. https://doi.org/10.1126/science/1072994
  • Harris, M. A., Brett, C. E., Johnson, W., & Deary, I. J. (2016). Personality stability from age 14 to age 77 years. Psychology and Aging, 31(8), 862–874. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000133
  • Harrison, A. G., Rosenblum, Y., & Currie, S. (2010). Examining unusual digit span performance in a population of postsecondary students assessed for academic difficulties. Assessment, 17(3), 283–293. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191109348590
  • Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and ageing: A review and a new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp.193–225). Academic Press.
  • Helfritz, L. E., Stanford, M. S., Conklin, S. M., Greve, K. W., Villemarette-Pittman, N. R., & Houston, R. J. (2006). Usefulness of self-report instruments in assessing men accused of domestic violence. The Psychological Record, 56(2), 171–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF033395542
  • Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2005). The short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): Construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44(Pt 2), 227–239. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466505X29657
  • International Wellbeing Group. (2013). Personal Wellbeing Index: 5th Edition. Australian Centre on Quality of Life, Deakin University.
  • Knox, P. C., & Pasunuru, N. (2020). Age-related alterations in inhibitory control investigated using the minimally delayed oculomotor response task. PeerJ., 8(1), e8401. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.8401
  • Knyazev, G. G., & Slobodskaya, H. R. (2006). Personality types and behavioural activation and inhibition in adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 41(8), 1385–1395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.035
  • Kramer, A. F., Humphrey, D. G., Larish, J. F., Logan, G. D., & Strayer, D. L. (1994). Ageing and inhibition: Beyond a unitary view of inhibitory processing inattention. Psychology and Aging, 9(4), 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.9.4.491
  • Lau, A. L. D., & Cummins, R. A. (2005). Test-retest Reliability of the Personal Wellbeing Index. Unpublished research report, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
  • Lau, A. L. D., Cummins, R. A., & McPherson, W. (2005). An Investigation into the cross-cultural equivalence of the Personal Wellbeing Index. Social Indicators Research, 72(3), 403–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-004-0561-z
  • Lee, T. M. C., Chan, C. C. H., Han, S-h., Leung, A. W. S., Fox, P. T., & Gao, J.-H. (2008). An event-related fMRI study on risk taking by healthy individuals of high or low impulsiveness. Neurosci Lett, 438(2), 138–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2008.04.061
  • Lee, G. R., DeMaris, A., Bavin, S., & Sullivan, R. (2001). Gender differences in the depressive effect of widowhood in later life. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 56(1), S56–S61. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerob/56.1.S56
  • Levy, B. R. (2003). Mind matters: Cognitive and physical effects of ageing self-stereotypes. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58(4), P203–P211. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/58.4P203
  • Lezak, M. D. (1983). Neuropsychological Assessment. Oxford University Press.
  • Logan, G. D., & Cowan, W. B. (1984). On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A theory of an act of control. Psychological Review, 91(3), 295–327. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.295
  • Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress (2nd ed.). Psychology Foundation.
  • Lubben, J. E. (1988). Assessing social networks among elderly populations. Family & Community Health, 11(3), 2–52. https://doi.org/10.1097/00003727-198811000-00008
  • Lubben, J. E., & Gironda, M. W. (2003a). Centrality of social ties to the health and well-being of older adults. In B. Berkman & L. K. Harooytan (Eds.), Social work and health care in an ageing world (pp. 319–350). Springer.
  • Lubben, J., Blozik, E., Gillmann, G., Iliffe, S., von Renteln Kruse, W., Beck, J. C., & Stuck, A. E. (2006). Performance of an abbreviated version of the Lubben Social Network Scale among three European community-dwelling older adult populations. The Gerontologist, 46(4), 503–513. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/46.4.503
  • Lucanin, J. D., Lucanin, D., & Havelka, M. (2011). Cognitive function and depression in elderly people. Psychological Topics, 20(1), 173–186. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20140306-05
  • Luo, L., & Craik, F. (2008). Aging and memory: A cognitive approach. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 53(6), 346–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370805300603
  • MacKinnon-Lee, K. A., & Bahr, M. (2020). The impact of age, gender, and marital status on age-associated cognitive decline. Psychology, 11(08), 1236–1283. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2020.118082
  • Madden, D. J., & Gottlob, L. R. (1997). Adult age differences in strategic and dynamic components of focusing visual attention. Ageing, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 4(3), 185–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825589708256647
  • Mazzuco, S., Meggiolaro, S., Ongaro, F., & Toffolutti, V. (2017). Living arrangement and cognitive decline among older people in Europe. Ageing and Society, 37(6), 1111–1133. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X16000374
  • Meng, L.-D., Liu, Y.-C., Feng, X., Zhai, Y.-X., & Liu, K. (2018). The mediating role of depression on the relationship between housebound status and cognitive function among the elderly in rural communities: A cross-sectional study. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 78(1), 58–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2018.05.019
  • Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043158
  • Misajon, R., Pallant, J., & Bliuc, A. M. (2016). Rasch analysis of the Personal Wellbeing Index. Quality of Life Research, 25(10), 2565–2569. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-016-1302-x
  • Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(1), 8–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411429458
  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
  • Morales-Vives, F., & Vigil-Colet, A. (2012). Are old people so gentle? Functional and dysfunctional impulsivity in the elderly. International Psychogeriatrics, 24(3), 465–471. https://doi.org/10.1017/S104161021100161X
  • Mousavi-Nasab, S., Kormi-Nouri, R., Sundstrom, A., & Nilsson, L. (2012). The effects of marital status on episodic and semantic memory in healthy middle-aged and old individuals. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 53(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2011.00926.x
  • Murrock, C. J., & Graor, C. H. (2016). Depression, social isolation, and the lived Experience of Dancing in Disadvantaged Adults. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 30(1), 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2015.10.010
  • Myerson, J., Emery, L., White, D. A., & Hale, S. (2003). Effects of age, domain, and processing demands on memory span: Evidence for differential decline. Ageing, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 10(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1076/anec.10.1.20.13454
  • Ng, F., Trauer, T., Dodd, S., Callaly, T., Campbell, S., & Berk, M. (2007). The validity of the 21-item version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales as a routine clinical outcome measure. Acta Neuropsychiatrica, 19(5), 304–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1601-5215.2007.00217.x
  • Nitschke, J. P., Forbes, P. A. G., Ali, N., Cutler, J., Apps, M., Lockwood, P., & Lamm, C. (2021). Resilience during uncertainty? Greater social connectedness during Covid-19 lockdown is associated with reduced distress and fatigue. British Journal of Health Psychology, 26 (2), 553–517. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12485
  • Norton, P. J. (2007). Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21): Psychometric analysis across four racial groups. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 20(3), 253–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800701309279
  • Oschwald, J., Guye, S., Liem, F., Rast, P., Willis, S., Röcke, C., Jäncke, L., Martin, M., & Mérillat, S. (2019). Brain structure and cognitive ability in healthy aging: A review on longitudinal correlated change. Reviews in the Neurosciences, 31(1), 1–57. https://doi.org/10.1515/revneuro-2018-0096
  • Ownby, R. L., Crocco, E., Acevedo, A., John, V., & Loewenstein, D. (2006). Depression and risk for Alzheimer disease: Systematic review, meta-analysis, and metaregression analysis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(5), 530–538. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.63.5.530
  • Patton, J. H., Stanford, M. S., & Barratt, E. S. (1995). Factor Structure of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51(6), 768–774. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679
  • Perquin, M., Vaillant, M., Schuller, A. M., Pastore, J., Dartigues, J. F., Lair, M. L., & Diederich, N. (2013). Lifelong exposure to multilingualism: New evidence to support cognitive reserve hypothesis. PLoS One, 8(4), e62030 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062030
  • Rey-Mermet, A., Gade, M., & Oberauer, K. (2018). Should we stop thinking about inhibition? Searching for individual and age differences in inhibition ability. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 44(4), 501–526. https://doi.org/10.10137/xlm0000450
  • Richardson, J. T. E. (2007). Measures of short-term memory: A historical review. Cortex, 43(5), 635–650. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70493-3
  • Ryan, L., & Caltabiano, M. L. (2009). Development of a New Resilience Scale: The Resilience in Midlife Scale (RIM Scale). Asian Social Science, 5(11), 39–51. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v5n11p39
  • Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103(3), 403–428. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403
  • Salthouse, T. A. (2009). When does age-related cognitive decline begin? Neurobiology of Aging, 30(4), 507–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolageing.2008.09.023
  • Salthouse, T. A. (2012). Consequences of age-related cognitive declines. Annual Review of Psychology, 63(1), 201–205.26. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100328
  • Satz, P., Cole, M. A., Hardy, D. J., & Rassovsky, Y. (2011). Brain and cognitive reserve: Mediator(s) and construct validity, a critique. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(1), 121–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2010.493151
  • Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalised causal inference. Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
  • Shin, S. H., Kim, G., & Park, S. (2018). Widowhood status as a risk factor for cognitive decline among older adults. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 26(7), 778–787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2018.03.013
  • Silver, R. C. (2009). Resilience. Oxford University Press.
  • Sinclair, S. J., Siefert, C. J., Slavin-Mulford, J. M., Stein, M. B., Renna, M., & Blais, M. A. (2012). Psychometric evaluation and normative data for the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21) in a nonclinical sample of U.S adults. Evaluation & the Health Professions, 35(3), 259–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163278711424282
  • Snowdon, D. A., Greiner, L. H., & Markesbery, W. R. (2000). Linguistic ability in early life and the neuropathology of Alzheimer’s disease and cerebrovascular disease: Findings from the Nun Study. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 903(1 VASCULAR FACT), 34–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb06347.x
  • Stafford, L. (2011). Measuring relationships maintenance behaviours: Critique and development of the revised relationship maintenance behaviour scale. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 28(2), 278–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407510378125
  • Stanford, M. S., Mathias, C. W., Dougherty, D. M., Lake, S. L., Anderson, N. E., & Patton, J. H. (2009). Fifty years of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale: An update and review. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(5), 385–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.04.008
  • Steffens, D. C., McQuoid, D. R., Payne, M. E., & Potter, G. G. (2011). Change in hippocampal volume on magnetic resonance imaging and cognitive decline among older depressed and nondepressed subjects in the neurocognitive outcomes of depression in the elderly study. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 19(1), 4–12. https://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181d6c245
  • Steinberg, L., Graham, S., O’Brien, L., Woolard, J., Cauffman, E., & Banich, M. (2009). Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting. Child Development, 80(1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01244.x
  • Stern, Y. (2012). Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer’s disease. The Lancet Neurology, 11(11), 1006–1012. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70191-6
  • Streiner, D. L., & Norman, G. R. (2014). Health Measurement Scales. Oxford University Press.
  • Szabo, M. (2010). The short version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): Factor structure in a young adolescent sample. Journal of Adolescence, 33(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.05.014
  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2014). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Pearson Education.
  • Tomyn, A. J., Fuller Tyszkiewicz, M. D., & Cummins, R. A. (2013). The Personal Wellbeing Index: Psychometric equivalence for adults and school children. Social Indicators Research, 110(3), 913–924. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9964-9
  • Tran, T. D., Tran, T., & Fisher, J. (2013). Validation of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) 21 as a screening instrument for depression and anxiety in a rural community-based cohort of northern Vietnamese women. BioMed Central Psychiatry, 13(24), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-24
  • Traykov, L., Raoux, N., Latour, F., Gallo, L., Hanon, O., Baudic, S., Bayle, C., Wenisch, E., Remy, P., & Rigaud, A.-S. (2007). Executive functions deficit in mild cognitive impairment. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 20(4), 219–224. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNN.0b013e31815e6254
  • Tschanz, J. T., Piercy, K., Corcoran, C. D., Fauth, E., Norton, M. C., Rabins, P. V., Tschanz, B. T., Deberard, M. S., Snyder, C., Smith, C., Lee, L., & Lyketsos, C. G. (2013). Caregiver coping strategies predict cognitive and functional decline in dementia: The cache county dementia progression study. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 21(1), 57–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2012.10.005
  • Turner, A. D., Capuano, A. W., Wilson, R. S., & Barnes, L. L. (2015). Depressive symptoms and cognitive decline in older African Americans: Two scales and their factors. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23(6), 568–578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2014.08.003
  • Van Gelder, B. M., Tijhuis, M., Kalmijn, S., Giampaoli, S., Nissinen, A., & Kromhout, D. (2006). Marital status and living situation during a 5-year period are associated with a subsequent 10-year cognitive decline in older men: The FINE Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 61(4), P213–219. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerund/61.4.P213
  • Verbruggen, F., Best, M., Bowditch, W. A., Stevens, T., & McLaren, I. (2014). The inhibitory control reflex. Neuropsychologia, 65(1), 263–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.08.014
  • Weinberg, M. K., Seton, C., & Cameron, N. (2018). The measurement of subjective wellbeing: Item-order effects in the Personal Wellbeing Index – Adult. Journal of Happiness Studies, 19(1), 315–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9822-1
  • West, R. L., Thorn, R. M., & Bagwell, D. K. (2003). Memory performance and beliefs as a function of goal setting and ageing. Psychology and Aging, 18(1), 111–125. https://doi.org/10.10137/0882-7974.18.1.111
  • Wilson, R. S., Mendes De Leon, C. F., Bennett, D. A., Bienias, J. L., & Evans, D. A. (2004). Depressive symptoms and cognitive decline in a community population of older persons. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 75(1), 126. https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.bond.edu.au/docview/1781234204?OpenUrlRefId=info:xri/sid:primo&accountid=26503
  • Wood, B. M., Nicholas, M. K., Blyth, F., Asghari, A., & Gibson, S. (2010). The utility of the short version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) in elderly patients with persistent pain: Does age make a difference? Pain Medicine, 11(12), 1780–1790. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2010.01005.x
  • World Health Organisation. (2021). Ageing and health. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health
  • Yates, J. A., Clare, L., & Woods, R. T. (2017). “You've got a friend in me”: Can social networks mediate the relationship between mood and MCI? BioMed Central Geriatrics, 17(144), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-017-0542-0
  • Yousefi, A. A., Mozaffari, K., Sharif, N., & Sepias, M. (2013). Reliability and validity of the “personal well-being index-cognitive disability” on mentally retarded students. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry, 8(2), 68–72. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3796296/

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.