On Racial Disparities in Recent Fatal Police Shootings

References

• Adams, K., Alpert, G., Dunham, R., Garner, J., Greenfeld, L. A., Henriquez, M. A., Langan, P. A., Maxwell, C. D., and Smith, S. K. (1999), Use of Force by Police: Overview of National and Local Data. US Washington, DC: Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice Research Report.
   Google Scholar
• Alpert, G. P., and Dunham, R. G. (1997), “The Force Factor: Measuring Police Use of Force Relative to Suspect Resistance,” Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
   Google Scholar
• Alpert, G. P., and Dunham, R. G. (2004), Understanding Police Use of Force: Officers, Suspects, and Reciprocity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ariel, B., Farrar, W. A., and Sutherland, A. (2015), “The Effect of Police Body-worn Cameras on Use of Force and Citizens? Complaints Against the Police: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 31, 509–535. DOI: 10.1007/s10940-014-9236-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balakrishnan, S., and Wasserman, L. (2018), “Hypothesis Testing for High-dimensional Multinomials: A Selective Review,” The Annals of Applied Statistics, 12, 727–749. DOI: 10.1214/18-AOAS1155SF.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckett, K., Nyrop, K., and Pfingst, L. “Race, Drugs, and Policing: Understanding Disparities in Drug Delivery Arrests,” Criminology, 44, 105–137, 2006. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00044.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cesario, J., Johnson, D. J., and Terrill, W. (2019), “Is There Evidence of Racial Disparity in Police use of Deadly Force? Analyses of Officer-Involved Fatal Shootings in 2015–2016,” Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10, 586–595. DOI: 10.1177/1948550618775108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’Alessio, S. J., and Stolzenberg, L. (2003), “Race and the Probability of Arrest,” Social forces, 81, 1381–1397. DOI: 10.1353/sof.2003.0051.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Efron, B., and R. J. Tibshirani, (1994), An Introduction to the Bootstrap. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Federal Bureau of Investigation (2016), “FBI Uniform Crime Reporting Program. Table 80: Full-time Law Enforcement Employees, by State by Metropolitan and Nonmetropolitan Counties, 2011.” Available at https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2011/crime-in-the-u.s.-2011/tables/table-80/view.
   Google Scholar
• Fridell, L., and Lim, H. (2016), “Assessing the Racial Aspects of Police Force Using the Implicit-and Counter-bias Perspectives,” Journal of Criminal Justice, 44, 36–48. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2015.12.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fryer, R. G. Jr(2016), “An Empirical Analysis of Racial Differences in Police Use of Force,” Technical report. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Fyfe, J. J. (2002), “Too Many Missing Cases: Holes in Our Knowledge About Police Use of Force,” Justice Research and Policy, 4, 87–102. DOI: 10.3818/JRP.4.1.2002.87.
   Google Scholar
• Good, P. (2005), Permutation, Parametric and Bootstrap Tests of Hypotheses, New York: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Inter-university Consortium for Political, Social Research. (1999), UNIFORM CRIME REPORTS (UCR) AND FEDERAL INFORMATION PROCESSING STANDARDS (FIPS) STATE AND COUNTY GEOGRAPHIC CODES, 1990: UNITED STATES. ICPSR ed. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political, Social Research [producer, and distributor], 10.3886/ICPSR02565.v1.
   Google Scholar
• Klinger, D. A. (2012), “On the Problems and Promise of Research on Lethal Police Violence: A Research Note,” Homicide Studies, 16, 78–96. DOI: 10.1177/1088767911430861.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klinger, D., Rosenfeld, R., Isom, D., and Deckard, M. (2016), “Race, Crime, and the Micro-ecology of Deadly Force,” Criminology & Public Policy, 15, 193–222. DOI: 10.1111/1745-9133.12174.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klinger, D. A., and Slocum, L. A. (2017), “Critical Assessment of an Analysis of a Journalistic Compendium of Citizens Killed by Police Gunfire,” Criminology & Public Policy, 16, 349–362. DOI: 10.1111/1745-9133.12283.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kobler, A. L. (1975), “Figures (and Perhaps Some Facts) on Police Killing of Civilians in the United States, 1965–1969,” Journal of Social Issues, 31, 185–191. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1975.tb00750.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kop, N., and Euwema, M. C. (2001), “Occupational Stress and the Use of Force by Dutch Police Officers,” Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28, 631–652. DOI: 10.1177/009385480102800505.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim, H., Fridell, L. A., and Lee, H. (2014), “The Impact of Supervision and Neighborhood Context on Police Use of Less-lethal Force: A Multi-level Analysis,” Journal of Police Studies, 14, 155–182.
   Google Scholar
• Legewie, J., and Fagan, J. (2016), “Group Threat, Police Officer Diversity and the Deadly Use of Police Force,” Columbia Public Law Research Paper, no. 14-512.
   Google Scholar
• National Association of Counties, “NACo County Explorer.” http://explorer.naco.org/\#.
   Google Scholar
• Nix, J., Campbell, B. A., Byers, E. H., and Alpert, G. P. (2017), “A Bird’s Eye View of Civilians Killed by Police in 2015: Further Evidence of Implicit Bias,” Criminology & Public Policy, 16, 309–340. DOI: 10.1111/1745-9133.12269.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ojala, M., and Garriga, G. C. (2010), “Permutation Tests for Studying Classifier Performance,” Journal of Machine Learning Research, 11, 1833–1863.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paoline III, E. A., and Terrill, W. (2007), “Police Education, Experience, and the Use of Force,” Criminal justice and behavior, 34, 179–196. DOI: 10.1177/0093854806290239.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phipson, B., and Smyth, G. K. (2010), “Permutation p-values Should Never Be Zero: Calculating Exact p-Values When Permutations are Randomly Drawn,” Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology, 9. DOI: 10.2202/1544-6115.1585.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridgeway, G. (2016), “Officer Risk Factors Associated With Police Shootings: A Matched Case–Control Study,” Statistics and Public Policy, 3, 1–6. DOI: 10.1080/2330443X.2015.1129918.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, B. W. (2004), “Structural and Organizational Predictors of Homicide by Police,” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 27, 539–557. DOI: 10.1108/13639510410566262.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, D. A., Visher, C. A., and Davidson, L. A. (1984), “Equity and Discretionary Justice: The Influence of Race on Police Arrest Decisions,” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973-), 75, 234–249. DOI: 10.2307/1143211.
   Google Scholar
• United States Census Bureau (2016), “County Population by Characteristics Datasets: 2010-2016.” Available at https://www.census.gov/data/datasets/2016/demo/popest/counties-detail.html.
   Google Scholar
• United States Census Bureau (2016), “U.S. Census Bureau Quickfacts: United States (V2016).” https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045216.
   Google Scholar
• United States Department of Justice (2017), Federal Bureau of Investigation. Uniform Crime Reporting Program Data: Arrests by Age, Sex, Race, 2013. ICPSR36115-v1. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political, and Social Research [distributor], 2015-10-07. 10.3886/ICPSR36115.v1.
   Google Scholar
• United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (2019), Uniform Crime Reporting Program Data: Supplementary Homicide Reports, United States, 2016. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2018-06-28. 10.3886/ICPSR37064.v1.
   Google Scholar
• Washington Post (2016), “Washington Post Database of Police Shootings.” https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/national/police-shootings/. (Access Date: 07/12/2016).
   Google Scholar
• White, M. D. (2016), “Transactional Encounters, Crisis-driven Reform, and the Potential for a National Police Deadly Force Database,” Criminology & Public Policy, 15, 223–235. DOI: 10.1111/1745-9133.12180.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, H. E., Bowman, S. W., and Jung, J. T. (2019), “The Limitations of Government Databases for Analyzing Fatal Officer-Involved Shootings in the United States,” Criminal Justice Policy Review, 30, 201–222. DOI: 10.1177/0887403416650927.
   Google Scholar