Fun and frustrating: Students’ perspectives on practising speaking English with virtual humans

References

• Adem, H., Berkessa, M., Khajavi, Y., & Khajavi, Y. (2022). (Reviewing editor) A case study of EFL teachers’ practice of teaching speaking skills vis-à-vis the principles of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). Cogent Education, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2022.2087458
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alelo. (n.d.). Enskill® English. A revolution in English language teaching. https://www.alelo.com/english-language-teaching/
   Google Scholar
• Alm, A., & Nkomo, L. M. (2020). Chatbot experiences of informal language learners: A sentiment analysis. International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 10(4), 51–19. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJCALLT.2020100104
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, J. N., Davidson, N., Morton, H., & Jack, M. A. (2008). Language learning with interactive virtual agent scenarios and speech recognition: Lessons learned. Computer Animation and Virtual Worlds, 19(5), 605–619. https://doi.org/10.1002/cav.265
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayedoun, E., Hayashi, Y., & Seta, K. (2015). A conversational agent to encourage willingness to communicate in the context of English as a foreign language. Procedia Computer Science, 60(1), 1433–1442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2015.08.219
   Google Scholar
• Bajorek, P. J. (2019, May 10). Voice recognition still has significant race and gender biases. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2019/05/voice-recognition-still-has-significant-race-and-gender-biases
   Google Scholar
• Bashori, M., van Hout, R., Strik, H., & Cucchiarini, C. (2020). Web-based language learning and speaking anxiety. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35(5–6), 1058–1089. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2020.1770293
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bashori, M., van Hout, R., Strik, H., & Cucchiarini, C. (2021). Effects of ASR-based websites on EFL learners’ vocabulary, speaking anxiety, and language enjoyment. System, 99, 102496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102496
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergman, M. M. (2008). The straw men of the qualitative-quantitative divide and their influence on mixed methods research. In M. M. Bergman (Ed.), Advances in mixed methods research theories and applications (pp. 11–23). SAGE.
   Google Scholar
• Bibauw, S., François, T., & Desmet, P. (2019). Discussing with a computer to practice a foreign language: Research synthesis and conceptual framework of dialogue-based CALL. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 32(8), 827–877. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1535508
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blake, R. J. (2017). Technologies for teaching and learning L2 speaking. In C. A. Chapelle & S. Sauro (Eds.), The handbook of technology and second language teaching and learning (pp. 107–117). Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Qualitative research in psychology using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
   Google Scholar
• Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise, and Health, 11(4), 589–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2019.1628806
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, J. D. (2009). Open-response Items in questionnaires. In J. Heigham & R. A. Croker (Eds.), Qualitative research in applied linguistics (pp. 200–219). Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Burden, D., & Savin-Baden, S. (2020). Virtual humans today and tomorrow. CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Burns, A. (2016). Research and the teaching of speaking in the second language classroom. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching (pp. 242–256). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Byram, M., & Méndez, M.-C. (2011). Communicative language teaching. In K. Knapp & B. Seidlhofer (Eds.), Handbooks of applied linguistics communication competence language and communication problems practical solutions (pp. 491–516). Walter de Gruyter.
   Google Scholar
• Chan, D. (2009). So why ask me? Are self-report data really that bad? In C. Lance & R. Vandenberg (Eds.), Statistical and methodological myths and urban legends: Doctrine, verity and fable in the organizational and social sciences (pp. 309–336). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Chapelle, C. A. (2009). The relationship between second language acquisition theory and computer-assisted language learning. The Modern Language Journal, 93, 741–753. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2009.00970.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coniam, D. (2008). An evaluation of chatbots as software aids to learning English as a second language. The EuroCALL Review, 13, 2–14. https://doi.org/10.4995/eurocall.2008.16353
   Google Scholar
• Council of Europe. (2020). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment – companion volume. Council of Europe Publishing. http://www.coe.int/lang-cefr
   Google Scholar
• Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage Publications, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Darancik, Y. (2018). Students’ views on language skills in foreign language teaching. International Education Studies, 11(7), 166–178. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v11n7p166
   Google Scholar
• Divekar, R. R., Drozdal, J., Chabot, S., Zhou, Y., Su, H., Chen., Zhu, H., Hendler, J. A., & Braasch, J. (2021). Foreign language acquisition via artificial intelligence and extended reality: Design and evaluation. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1–29. Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1879162
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dizon, G., & Tang, D. (2020). Intelligent personal assistants for autonomous second language learning: An investigation of Alexa. The JALT CALL Journal, 16(2), 107–120. https://doi.org/10.29140/jaltcall.v16n2.273
   Google Scholar
• Doremalen, J. V., Boves, L., Colpaert, J., Cucchiarini, C., & Strik, H. (2016). Evaluating automatic speech recognition-based language learning systems: A case study. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 29(4), 833–851. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2016.1167090
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erickson, G., Bardel, C., Österberg, R., & Rosén, M. (2022). Attitudes and ambiguities – Teachers’ views on second foreign language education in Swedish compulsory school. In C. Bardel, C. Hedman, K. Rejman, & E. Zetterholm (Eds.), Exploring language education: Global and local perspectives (pp. 157–201). Stockholm University Press. https://doi.org/10.16993/bbz
   Google Scholar
• Forsyth, C. M., Luce, C., Zapata-Rivera, D., Jackson, G. T., Evanini, K., & So, Y. (2019). Evaluating English language learners’ conversations: Man vs. machine. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 32(4), 398–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1517126
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fryer, L. K., Nakao, K., & Thompson, A. (2019). Chatbot learning partners: Connecting learning experiences, interest and competence. Computers in Human Behavior, 93, 279–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.12.023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallacher, A., Thompson, A., & Howarth, M. (2018). “My robot is an idiot!” – Students’ perceptions of AI in the L2 classroom. Future-proof CALL: Language learning as exploration and encounters – short papers from EUROCALL 2018. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2018.26.815
   Google Scholar
• GDPR. (2018). General data protection regulation. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/SV/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32016R0679&from=EN
   Google Scholar
• Godwin-Jones, R. (2009). Emerging technologies speech tools and technologies. Language Learning and Technology, 13(3), 4–11 http://dx.doi.org/10.125/44186.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goh, C. C. M., & Burns, A. (2012). Teaching speaking: A holistic approach. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Golonka, E. M., Bowles, A. R., Frank, V. M., Richardson, D. L., & Freynik, S. (2014). Technologies for foreign language learning: A review of technology types and their effectiveness. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 27(1), 70–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2012.700315
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griol, D., & Callejas, Z. (2016). Conversational agents as learning facilitators: Experiences with a mobile multimodal dialogue system architecture. In S. Caballé & R. Clarisó (Eds.), Formative assessment, learning data analytics and gamification in ICT education (pp. 313–331). Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hassani, K., Nahvi, A., & Ahmadi, A. (2016). Design and implementation of an intelligent virtual environment for improving speaking and listening skills. Interactive Learning Environments, 24(1), 252–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2013.846265
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodges, H., Steffensen, S. V., & Martin, J. E. (2012). Caring, conversing, and realizing values: New directions in language studies. Language Sciences, 34(5), 499–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2012.03.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, W., Hew, K. F., & Fryer, L. K. (2022). Chatbots for language learning—Are they really useful? A systematic review of chatbot-supported language learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 38(1), 237–257. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12610
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeon, J. (2022). Exploring AI chatbot affordances in the EFL classroom: Young learners’ experiences and perspectives. Computer Assisted Language Learning, Taylor & Francis Online. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.2021241
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, W. L. (2019). Data-driven development and evaluation of Enskill English. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 29(3), 425–457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-019-00182-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, W. L., & Lester, J. C. (2016). Face-to-face interaction with pedagogical agents, twenty years later. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26(1), 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-015-0065-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan-Rakowski, R., & Wojdynski, T. (2018). Students’ attitudes toward high-immersion virtual reality assisted language learning. In P. Taalas, J. Jalkanen, L. Bradley, & S. Thouësny Eds. Future-proof CALL: Language learning as exploration and encounters – Short papers from EUROCALL 2018 (pp. 124–129). Research-publishing.net. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2018.26.824
   Google Scholar
• Kim, N. Y. (2016). Effects of voice chat on EFL learners’ speaking ability according to proficiency levels. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 19(4), 63–88. https://doi.org/10.15702/mall.2016.19.4.63
   Google Scholar
• Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Lee, H. (2020). . In K.-M. Frederiksen, S. Larsen, L. Bradley, & S. Thouësny (Eds.), CALL for widening participation: Short papers from EUROCALL 2020 (pp. 172–176). Researchpublishing.net. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2020.48.1184
   Google Scholar
• Lantolf, J., Thorne, S. L., & Poehner, M. E. (2014). Sociocultural theory and second language development. In B. Vanpatten & J. Williams(Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 207–226). Taylor and Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203628942-16
   Google Scholar
• Levy, M. (2015). The role of qualitative approaches to research in CALL contexts: Closing in on the learner’s experience. CALICO Journal, 32(3), 554–568. Equinox Publishing Ltd.https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.v32i3.26620
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, L. (2017). New Technologies and Language Learning. Palgrave.
   Google Scholar
• Loewen, S., & Sato, M. (2018). Interaction and instructed second language acquisition. Language Teaching, 51(3), 285–329. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444818000125
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413–468). Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Morton, H., & Jack, M. A. (2005). Scenario-based spoken interaction with virtual agents. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 18(3), 171–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588220500173344
   Google Scholar
• Moussalli, S., & Cardoso, W. (2020). Intelligent personal assistants: Can they understand and be understood by accented L2 learners? Computer Assisted Language Learning, 33(8), 865–890. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1595664
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder, N. L., Chiou, E. K., & Craig, S. D. (2021). Trust influences perceptions of virtual humans, but not necessarily learning. Computers & Education, 160, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104039
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder, N. L., & Craig, S. D. (2021). Learning with virtual humans: Introduction to the special issue. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 53(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2020.1863114
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swain, M. (2000). The output hypothesis and beyond: Mediating acquisition through collaborative dialogue. In J. P. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning (pp. 97–114). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Swain, M. (2013). The inseparability of cognition and emotion in second language learning. Language Teaching, 46(2), 195–207. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444811000486
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swedish Research Council. (2017). Good research practice. https://www.vr.se/english/analysis-and-assignments/we-analyse-and-evaluate/all-publications/publications/2017-08-31-good-research-practice.html
   Google Scholar
• Sydorenko, T., Daurio, P., & Thorne, S. L. (2018). Refining pragmatically-appropriate oral communication via computer-simulated conversations. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 31(1–2), 157–180. http://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2017.1394326
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thiriau, C. (2017). Global Teaching Speaking Survey: The results. Cambridge University Press. https://www.cambridge.org/elt/blog/2017/11/06/teaching-speaking-survey-results/
   Google Scholar
• Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, N., & Johnson, W. L. (2008). The politeness effect in an intelligent foreign language tutoring system. In B. P, Woolf, E., Aïmeur, R., Nkambou, S., Lajoie (Eds.) Intelligent Tutoring Systems. ITS 2008. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Vol. 5091, pp. 270–280). LNCS: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-69132-7_31
   Google Scholar
• Wang, Y. F., Petrina, S., & Feng, F. (2017). VILLAGE–Virtual immersive language learning and gaming environment: Immersion and presence. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(2), 431–450. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12388
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar