The impact of conflict exposure and social support on posttraumatic growth among the young adults in Kashmir

References

• Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unravelling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Baker, A., & Shalhoub-Kevorkkian, N. (1999). Effects of political and military traumas on children: The palestinian case. Clinical Psychology Review, 19, 935–950.10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00004-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrera, M., Jr. (1986). Distinctions between social support concepts, measures, and models. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 413–445.10.1007/BF00922627
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blix, I., Hansen, M. B., Birkeland, M. S., Nissen, A., & Heir, T. (2013). Posttraumatic growth, posttraumatic stress and psychological adjustment in the aftermath of the 2011 Oslo bombing attack. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 11, 160. doi:10.1186/1477-7525-11-160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolger, N., Zuckerman, A., & Kessler, R. C. (2000). Invisible support and adjustment to stress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 953–961.10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.953
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butler, L. D., Blasey, C. M., Garlan, R. W., McCaslin, S. E., Azarow, J., Chen, X. H., … Spiegel, D. (2005). Posttraumatic growth following the terrorist attacks of september 11, 2001: Cognitive, coping, and trauma symptom predictors in an internet convenience sample. Traumatology, 11, 247–267.10.1177/153476560501100405
   Google Scholar
• Cadell, S., Regehr, C., & Hemsworth, D. (2003). Factors contributing to posttraumatic growth: A proposed structural equation model. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73, 279–287.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calhoun, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (1989-1990). Positive aspects of critical life problems: Recollections of grief. Omega, 20, 265–272.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calhoun, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (2006). The foundations of posttraumatic growth: An expanded framework. In L. G. Calhoun & R. G. Tedeschi (Eds.), Handbook of posttraumatic growth. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Cobb, A. R., Tedeschi, R. G., Calhoun, L. G., & Cann, A. (2006). Correlates of posttraumatic growth in survivors of intimate partner violence. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19, 895–903.10.1002/(ISSN)1573-6598
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, S. (1992). Stress, social support, and disorder. In H. O. F. Veiel & U. Baumann (Eds.), The meaning and measurement of social support (pp. 109–124). New York, NY: Hemisphere.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310–357.10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coyne, J. C., & Bolger, N. (1990). Doing without social support as an explanatory concept. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 148–158.10.1521/jscp.1990.9.1.148
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dar, F. A. (2011). Living in a pressure cooker situation—a needs assessment of youth in India-administered Kashmir. London: Conciliation Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Das, V. (2007). Life and words: Violence and the descent into the ordinary. Berkeley: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• de Jong, K., Kam, V. D. S., Ford, N., Lokuge, K., Fromm, S., van Galen, R., … Kleber, R. (2008b). Conflict in the Indian Kashmir Valley II: Psychosocial impact. Conflict and Health, 2, 11. doi:10.1186/1752-1505-2-11
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• de Jong, K., Ford, N., Kam, V. D. S., Lokuge, K., Fromm, S., van Galen, R., … Kleber, R. (2008a). Conflict in the Indian Kashmir Valley I: Exposure to violence. Conflict and Health, 2, 10. doi:10.1186/1752-1505-2-10
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dekel, S., Ein-Dor, T., & Solomon, Z. (2012). Posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic distress: A longitudinal study. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 4, 94–101.10.1037/a0021865
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erbes, C., Eberly, R., Dikel, T., Johnsen, E., Harris, I., & Engdahl, B. (2005). Posttraumatic growth among american former prisoners of war. Traumatology, 11, 285–295.10.1177/153476560501100407
   Google Scholar
• Feder, A., Southwick, S. M., Goetz, R. R., Wang, Y., Alonso, A., Smith, B. W., … Vythilingam, M. (2008). Posttraumatic growth in former Vietnam prisoners of war. Psychiatry, 71, 359–370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganguly, S. (1996). Conflict in South and South West Asia. In M. E. Brown (Ed.), The international dimensions of internal conflict (pp. 141–172). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ganguly, S. (1997). The crisis in Kashmir: Portents of war, hopes of peace. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Giacaman, R., Mataria, A., Nguyen-Gillham, V., Safieh, R. A., Stefanini, A., & Chatterji, S. (2007). Quality of life in the Palestinian context: An inquiry in war-like conditions. Health Policy, 81, 68–84.10.1016/j.healthpol.2006.05.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halcomb, E., Daly, J., Davidson, P., Elliott, D., & Griffiths, R. (2005). Life beyond severe traumatic injury: An integrative review of the literature. Australian Critical Care, 18, 17–24.10.1016/S1036-7314(05)80020-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hall, B. J., Hobfoll, S. E., Canetti, D., Johnson, R. J., Palmieri, P. A., & Galea, S. (2010). Exploring the association between posttraumatic growth and PTSD: A national study of Jews and Arabs following the 2006 Israeli–Hezbollah war. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198, 180–186. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181d1411b
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helgeson, V. S. (1993). Two important distinctions in social support: Kind of support and perceived versus received. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23, 825–845.10.1111/jasp.1993.23.issue-10
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobfoll, S. E., & Vaux, A. (1993). Social support: Social resources and social context. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects (2nd ed., pp. 685–705). New York, NY: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hobfoll, S. E., Hall, B. J., Canetti-Nisim, D., Galea, S., Johnson, R. J., & Palmieri, P. A. (2007). Refining our understanding of traumatic growth in the face of terrorism: Moving from meaning cognitions to doing what is meaningful. Applied Psychology, 56, 345–366.10.1111/apps.2007.56.issue-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions: Toward a new psychology of trauma. New York, NY: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kaler, M. E., Erbes, C. R., Tedeschi, R. G., Arbisi, P. A., & Polusny, M. A. (2011). Factor structure and concurrent validity of the posttraumatic growth inventory-short form among veterans from the Iraq war. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24, 200–207.10.1002/jts.20623
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kashani, S., Kanth, I., Fazili, G., & Husain, S. (2003). The impact of violence on the student community in Kashmir. New Delhi: Oxfam India Trust.
   Google Scholar
• Kaw, A. M. (2010). Central Asian contribution to Kashmir’s tradition of religio-cultural pluralism. Central Asiatic Journal, 52, 237–255.
   Google Scholar
• Keane, T. M., Marshall, A. D., & Taft, C. T. (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Etiology, epidemiology, and treatment outcome. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 161–197.10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimhi, S., Eshel, Y., Zysberg, L., & Hantman, S. (2010). Postwar winners and losers in the long run: Determinants of war related stress symptoms and posttraumatic growth. Community Mental Health Journal, 46, 10–19.10.1007/s10597-009-9183-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim, B., & Ehlers, A. (2009). Evidence for a curvilinear relationship between posttraumatic growth and posttrauma depression and PTSD in assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22, 45–52.10.1002/jts.v22:1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunst, M. J., Winkel, F. W., & Bogaerts, S. (2010). Posttraumatic growth moderates the association between violent revictimization and persisting PTSD symptoms in victims of interpersonal violence: A six-month follow-up study. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29, 527–545.10.1521/jscp.2010.29.5.527
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurtz, M., Wyatt, G., & Kurtz, J. C. (1995). Psychological and sexual well-being, philosophical/spiritual views, and health habits of long term cancer survivors. Health Care for Women International, 16, 253–262.10.1080/07399339509516176
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Laufer, A., & Solomon, Z. (2006). Posttraumatic symptoms and posttraumatic growth among Israeli youth exposed to terror incidents. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25, 229–447.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linley, P. A., & Joseph, S. (2004). Positive change following trauma and adversity: A review. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 11–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maercker, A., & Herrle, J. (2003). Long-term effects of the Dresden bombing: Relationships to control beliefs, religious belief, and personal growth. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 579–587.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Margoob, A. M., Firdosi, M. M., Banal, R., Khan, A. Y., Malik, Y. A., Ahmad, S. A., … Shah, M. S. (2006). Community prevalence of trauma in South Asia—experience from Kashmir. JK Practitioner, 13, S14–S17.
   Google Scholar
• McIntosh, D. N., Silver, R. C., & Wortman, C. B. (1993). Religion's role in adjustment to a negative life event: Coping with the loss of a child. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 812–821.10.1037/0022-3514.65.4.812
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMillen, J. C., Smith, E. M., & Fisher, R. H. (1997). Perceived benefit and mental health after three types of disaster. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 65, 733–739.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, C. L., & Folkman, S. (1997). Meaning in the context of stress and coping. Review of General Psychology, 1, 115–144.10.1037/1089-2680.1.2.115
   Google Scholar
• Pedersen, D. (2006). Reframing political violence and mental health outcomes: Outlining a research and action agenda for Latin America and the Caribbean region. Ciencia & Saude Coletiva, 11, 293–302.
   Google Scholar
• Pietrzak, R. H., Goldstein, M. B., Malley, J. C., Rivers, A. J., Johnson, D. C., Morgan III, C. A., & Southwick, S. M. (2010). Posttraumatic growth in veterans of operations enduring freedom and Iraqi freedom. Journal of Affective Disorders, 126, 230–235.10.1016/j.jad.2010.03.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Punamaki, R. L., Kanninen, K., Qouta, S., & Sarraj, E. E. (2004). The role of psychological defenses in moderating between trauma and post-traumatic symptoms among Palestinian men. International Journal of Psychology, 37, 286–296.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroevers, M. J., Helgeson, V. S., Sanderman, R., & Ranchor, A. V. (2010). Type of social support matters for prediction of posttraumatic growth among cancer survivors. Psycho-Oncology, 19, 46–53.10.1002/pon.v19:1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroevers, M. J., Kraaij, V., & Garnefski, N. (2011). Cancer patients’ experience of positive and negative changes due to the illness: Relationships with psychological well-being, coping, and goal reengagement. Psycho-Oncology, 20, 165–172.10.1002/pon.v20.2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulz, U., & Mohamed, N. E. (2004). Turning the tide: Benefit finding after cancer surgery. Social Science & Medicine, 59, 653–662.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scobell, A. (2001). Flashpoint Asia: The most dangerous place? Parameters, 31, 129–133.
   Google Scholar
• Shakespeare-Finch, J., Martinek, E., Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2013). A qualitative approach to assessing the validity of the posttraumatic growth inventory. Journal of Loss and Trauma: International Perspectives on Stress & Coping, 18, 572–591.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegel, K., Schrimshaw, E. W., & Pretter, S. (2005). Stress-related growth among women living with HIV/AIDS: Examination of an explanatory model. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 28, 403–414.10.1007/s10865-005-9015-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon, Z., & Dekel, R. (2007). Posttraumatic stress disorder and posttraumatic growth among Israeli ex-pows. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 303–312.10.1002/(ISSN)1573-6598
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, C., & Long, N. (1999). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the New Zealand police: The moderating role of social support following traumatic stress. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 12, 247–264.10.1080/10615809908250477
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroebe, W., & Stroebe, M. (1996). The social psychology of social support. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 597–621). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tallman, B. A., Altmaier, E., & Garcia, C. (2007). Finding benefit from cancer. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 481–487.10.1037/0022-0167.54.4.481
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, S. E. (1983). Adjustment to threatening events: A theory of cognitive adaptation. American Psychologist, 38, 1161–1173.10.1037/0003-066X.38.11.1161
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1996). The posttraumatic growth inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 455–471.10.1002/(ISSN)1573-6598
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). TARGET ARTICLE: "Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence". Psychological Inquiry, 15, 1–18.10.1207/s15327965pli1501_01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tonsing, K., Zimet, G. D., & Tse, S. (2012). Assessing social support among South Asians: The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 5, 164–168.10.1016/j.ajp.2012.02.012
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Updegraff, J. A. (2005). Predictors of perceived growth following direct exposure to community violence. Journal of Social Clinical Psychology, 24, 538–560.10.1521/jscp.2005.24.4.538
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wani, Z. A., & Margoob, M. A. (2006). Family study of adult PTSD patients in south Asia—experience from Kashmir. JK-Practitioner, 13, 61–64.
   Google Scholar
• Wills, T. A. (1991). Social support and interpersonal relationships. In M. S. Clark (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 12, pp. 265–289). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Yaswi, A., & Haque, A. (2008). Prevalence of PTSD symptoms and depression and level of coping among the victims of the Kashmir conflict. Journal of Loss and Trauma: International Perspectives on Stress & Coping, 13, 471–480.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimet, G., Dahlem, N., Zimet, S., & Farley, G. (1998). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52, 30–41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar