REFERENCES
- Alisic, E. (2012). Teachers’ perspectives on providing support to children after trauma: a qualitative study. School Psychology Quarterly: The Official Journal of the Division of School Psychology, American Psychological Association, 27(1), 51–59. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028590
- Alisic, E., Bus, M., Dulack, W., Pennings, L., & Splinter, J. (2012). Teachers’ experiences supporting children after traumatic exposure. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25(1), 98–101. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20709
- Asmar, M. (2020, June 12). Denver school board votes to phase police out of district. The Denver Post. https://www.denverpost.com/2020/06/11/dps-board-votes-to-phase-police-out-of-schools/
- Beebe, J. (2001). Rapid assessment process: An introduction. Rowman Altamira.
- Benner, A. D., Graham, S., & Mistry, R. S. (2008). Discerning direct and mediated effects of ecological structures and processes on adolescents’ educational outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 840–854. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.840
- Bhattacharya, K. (2017). Fundamentals of qualitative research: A practical guide. Taylor & Francis.
- Bracy, N. L. (2010). Circumventing the law: Students’ rights in schools with police. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 26(3), 294–315. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986210368645
- Breci, M. G., & Erickson, T. E. (1998). Community Policing: The Process of Transition Change. FBI L. Enforcement Bull, 67, 16–21.
- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). Ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
- Broward County Public Schools. (2018, June 28). Update regarding school resource officers and safe school officers. https://www.browardschools.com/site/default.aspx?PageType=3&DomainID=14019&ModuleInstanceID=60855&ViewID=6446EE88-D30C-497E-9316-3F8874B3E108&RenderLoc=0&FlexDataID=88570&PageID=38282
- Campisi, J. (2019, March 28). School resource officers need SEL training, experts say- but their preparation ‘lacks consistency. Education Dive. https://www.educationdive.com news/school-resource-officers-need-sel-training-experts-say-but-their-prepara/550428/
- Canady, M., James, B., & Nease, J. (2012). To protect and educate: The school resource officer and the prevention of violence in schools. National Association of School Resource Officers. https://www.nasro.org/clientuploads/resources/NASRO-Protect-and-Educate.pdf
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Preventing Adverse Childhood Experiences. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childabuseandneglect/aces/fastfact.html
- Cohen, J., & Espelage, D. L. (2020). Feeling safe in school: Bullying and violence prevention around the world. Harvard Education Press.
- Crenshaw, K., Ocen, P., & Nanda, J. (2015). Black girls matter: Pushed out, overpoliced, and underprotected. African American Policy Forum. Center for Intersectionality and Social Policy Studies. https://www.atlanticphilanthropies.org/app/uploads/2015/09/BlackGirlsMatter_Report.pdf.
- Curran, F. C. (2016). Estimating the effect of state zero tolerance laws on exclusionary discipline, racial discipline gaps, and student behavior. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38(4), 647–668. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373716652728
- Curran, F. C., Fisher, B. W., Viano, S., & Kupchik, A. (2019). Why and when do school resource officers engage in school discipline? The role of context in shaping disciplinary involvement. American Journal of Education, 126(1), 33–63. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1086/705499
- DeLaRue, L., & Forber-Pratt, A. J. (2018). When gangs are in schools: Challenges for youth and expectations for administration. In H. Shapiro (Ed.), The Handbook of Violence in Education: Forms, Factors, and Preventions. (pp. 287–302). Wiley Blackwell Publishers.
- DeVos, B., Nielsen, K. M., & Azar, A. M. (2018). Final Report of the Federal Commission on School Safety. U.S. Department of Education. https://www2.ed.gov/documents/school-safety/school-safety-report.pdf
- Dods, J. (2015). Bringing trauma to school: Sharing the educational experience of three youths. Exceptionality Education International, 25, 112–135. http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/eei/vol25/iss1/6
- Dorado, J. S., Martinez, M., McArthur, L. E., & Leibovitz, T. (2016). Healthy Environments and Response to Trauma in Schools (HEARTS): A whole-school, multi-level, prevention and intervention program for creating trauma-informed, safe and supportive schools. School Mental Health, 8(1), 163–176. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9177-0
- DuBois, D. L., Holloway, B. E., Valentine, J. C., & Cooper, H. (2002). Effectiveness of mentoring programs for youth: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 157–197. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014628810714
- Duke, N. N., Pettingell, S. L., McMorris, B. J., & Borowsky, I. W. (2010). Adolescent violence perpetration: associations with multiple types of adverse childhood experiences. Pediatrics, 125(4), e778–e786. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0597
- Editorial Projects in Education. (2020, July 27). School shootings in 2019: how many and where. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/ew/section/multimedia/school-shootings-in-2019-how-many-where.html
- Espelage, D. L., El Sheikh, A., Robinson, L. E., Valido, A., Ingram, K. M., Torgal, C., & Nicholson, A. M. (2020). Development of online professional development for School Resource Officers: Understanding trauma, social-emotional learning, restorative discipline, and cultural diversity. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 1–15. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-020-09404-z
- Faircloth, R. (2020, June 2). Minneapolis Public Schools terminate contract with Police Department over George Floyd’s Death. Star Tribune. https://www.startribune.com/mpls-school-board-ends-contract-with-police-for-school-resource-officers/570967942/
- Finn, P., & McDevitt, J. (2005). National Assessment of School Resource Officer Programs. Final Project Report. U.S. Department of Justice. www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/209273.pdf
- Fisher, B. W., & Hennessy, E. A. (2016). School resource officers and exclusionary discipline in US high schools: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Adolescent Research Review, 1(3), 217–233. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-015-0006-8
- Florida Department of Education. (2018). Guardian Program. http://www.fldoe.orgsafe-schools/guardian-program.stml
- Gill, C., Gottfredson, D., & Hutzell, K. (2016). Can school policing be trauma-informed? Lessons from Seattle. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 39(3), 551–565. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-02-2016-0020
- Goff, P. A., Jackson, M. C., Di Leone, B. A. L., Culotta, C. M., & DiTomasso, N. A. (2014). The essence of innocence: consequences of dehumanizing Black children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4), 526–545. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035663
- Howard, T. C. (2016). Why black lives (and minds) matter: Race, freedom schools & the quest for educational equity. The Journal of Negro Education, 85(2), 101–113. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.85.2.0101
- Huckshorn, K., & LeBel, J. L. (2013). Trauma-informed care. In D. Svendsen, G. M. Sills, D. Cutler, & K. Yeager (Eds.). Modern community mental health: An interdisciplinary approach. (pp. 62–83). Oxford University Press.
- Javdani, S. (2019). Policing education: An empirical review of the Challenges and Impact of the Work of School Police Officers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 63(3-4), 253–269. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12306
- Jennings, W. G., Khey, D. N., Maskaly, J., & Donner, C. M. (2011). Evaluating the relationship between law enforcement and school security measures and violent crime in schools. Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations, 11(2), 109–124. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15332586.2011.581511
- Kalmakis, K. A., & Chandler, G. E. (2015). Health consequences of adverse childhood experiences: A systematic review. Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners, 27(8), 457–465. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/2327-6924.12215
- Koenig, C. J., Abraham, T., Zamora, K. A., Hill, C., Kelly, P. A., Uddo, M., Hamilton, M., Pyne, J. M., & Seal, K. H. (2016). Pre-Implementation strategies to adapt and implement a veteran peer coaching intervention to improve mental health treatment engagement among rural veterans. The Journal of Rural Health: Official Journal of the American Rural Health Association and the National Rural Health Care Association, 32(4), 418–428. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/jrh.12201
- Kurtz, H., Lloyd, S., Harwin, A., & Osher, M. (2018). School policing: results of a national survey of school resource officers. Education Week Research Center. https://www.edweek.org/media/school-resource-officer-survey-copyright-education-week.pdf
- Langley, A. K., Gonzalez, A., Sugar, C. A., Solis, D., & Jaycox, L. (2015). Bounce back: Effectiveness of an elementary school-based intervention for multicultural children exposed to traumatic events. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83(5), 853–865. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000051
- Macmillan, R., & Hagan, J. (2004). Violence in the transition to adulthood: Adolescent victimization, education, and socioeconomic attainment in later life. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 14(2), 127–158. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2004.01402001.x
- McCoy, M. R. (2006). Teaching style and the application of adult learning principles by police instructors. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 29(1), 77–91. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510610648494
- Merkwae, A. (2015). Schooling the police: Race, disability, and the conduct of school resource officers. Michigan Journal of Race & Law, 21, 147–181.
- Merrick, M. T., Ford, D. C., Ports, K. A., & Guinn, A. S. (2018). Prevalence of adverse childhood experiences from the 2011-2014 behavioral risk factor surveillance system in 23 states. JAMA Pediatrics, 172(11), 1038–1044. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.2537
- Morgan, A., Pendergast, D., Brown, R., & Heck, D. (2015). Relational ways of being an educator: Trauma-informed practice supporting disenfranchised young people. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 19(10), 1037–1051. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2015.1035344
- Morris, M., Epstein, R., Yusuf, A. (2017). Be her resource: A toolkit about school resource officers and girls of color. The Georgetown Law Center on Poverty and Inequality. https://www.law.georgetown.edu/poverty-inequality-center/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2018/05/17_SRO-final-_Acc.pdf
- Musu, L., Zhang, A., Wang, K., Zhang, J., & Oudekerk, B. (2019). Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2018 (NCES 2019-047/NCJ 252571) National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2019/2019047.pdf
- Nance, J. P. (2016). Rethinking law enforcement officers in schools. George Washington Law Review Arguendo, 84, 151–159.
- Nansel, T. R., Overpeck, M. D., Haynie, D. L., Ruan, W. J., & Scheidt, P. C. (2003). Relationships between bullying and violence among U.S. youth. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 157(4), 348–353. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.157.4.348
- National Association of School Resource Officers. (NASRO 2020). Frequently Asked Questions. https://www.nasro.org/faq/
- Pentek, C., & Eisenberg, M. E. (2018). School resource officers, safety, and discipline: Perceptions and experiences across racial/ethnic groups in Minnesota secondary schools. Children and Youth Services Review, 88, 141–148. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.03.008
- Perry, D. L., & Daniels, M. L. (2016). Implementing trauma—informed practices in the school setting: A pilot study. School Mental Health, 8(1), 177–188. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9182-3
- Record-Lemon, R. M., & Buchanan, M. J. (2017). Trauma-informed practices in schools: A narrative literature review. Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 51(4), 286–305.
- Rhodes, T. (2019). School resource officer perceptions and correlates of work roles. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 13(4), 498–516. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/police/pax078
- Ringwalt, C. L., Ennett, S., Johnson, R., Rohrbach, L. A., Simons-Rudolph, A., Vincus, A., & Thorne, J. (2003). Factors associated with fidelity to substance use prevention curriculum guides in the nation’s middle schools. Health Education & Behavior, 30(3), 375–391.
- Rolfsnes, E. S., & Idsoe, T. (2011). School-based intervention programs for PTSD symptoms: a review and meta-analysis. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(2), 155–165. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20622
- Saldaña, J. (2015). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Sage.
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. ( 2014). SAMHSA’s concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. https://store.samhsa.gov/system/files/sma14-4884.pdf
- Swartz, K., Osborne, D. L., Dawson-Edwards, C., & Higgins, G. E. (2016). Policing schools: Examining the impact of place management activities on school violence. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 41(3), 465–483. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-015-9306-6
- Theriot, M. T. (2016). The impact of school resource officer interaction on students’ feelings about school and school police. Crime & Delinquency, 62(4), 446–469. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128713503526
- Turner, E. O., & Beneke, A. J. (2020). Softening’ school resource officers: the extension of police presence in schools in an era of Black Lives Matter, school shootings, and rising inequality. Race Ethnicity and Education, 23(2), 221–240. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2019.1679753
- Tynes, B. M., Willis, H. A., Stewart, A. M., & Hamilton, M. W. (2019). Race-related traumatic events online and mental health among adolescents of color. The Journal of Adolescent Health: official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 65(3), 371–377. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.03.006
- U.S. Secret Service. (2019). Protecting America’s Schools - A U.S. Secret Service Analysis of Targeted School Violence. U.S. Department of Homeland Security: United States Secret Service, National Threat Assessment Center. https://www.secretservice.gov/data/protection/ntac/usss-analysis-of-targeted-school-violence.pdf
- Van Ryzin, M. (2010). Secondary school advisors as mentors and secondary attachment figures. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(2), 131–154. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20356
- Zhang, G. (2019). The effects of a school policing program on crime, discipline, and disorder: A quasi-experimental evaluation. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 44(1), 45–62. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-018-9440-z