References
- Acharya, Amitav. 2016. “Regionalism Beyond EU-Centrism.” In The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Regionalism, edited by Tanja A. Börzel, and Thomas Risse, 109–130. Oxford University Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199682300.001.0001.
- Acharya, Amitav, and Alastair Iain Johnston. 2001. “Comparing Regional Institutions: An Introduction.” In Crafting Cooperation: Regional International Institutions in Comparative Perspective, 1–31. Cambridge University Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511491436.001.
- African Union. 2009. Oliver Tambo Declaration. https://africainonespace.org/downloads/TheOliverTamboDeclaration.pdf.
- African Union. 2015. Flagship Projects of Agenda 2063. https://au.int/en/agenda2063/flagship-projects.
- African Union. 2019. “African Union Cybersecurity Expert Group Holds Its First Inaugural Meeting.” December 12. https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20191212/african-union-cybersecurity-expert-group-holds-its-first-inaugural-meeting.
- African Union. 2020. “African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection.” May 11. https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection.
- Allen, Nathaniel. 2021. “Africa’s Evolving Cyber Threats.” Africa Center for Strategic Studies. January 19. https://africacenter.org/spotlight/africa-evolving-cyber-threats/.
- Allison-Reumann, Laura. 2017. “The Norm-Diffusion Capacity of ASEAN: Evidence and Challenges.” Pacific Focus 32 (1): 5–29. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/pafo.12089.
- Amazouz, Souhila. 2020. “Cyber Capacity-Building and International Security.” In Routledge Handbook of International Cybersecurity, edited by Eneken Tikk, and Mika Kerttunen, 201–213. London: Routledge.
- Ang, Benjamin. 2018. “Next Steps for Cyber Norms in ASEAN.” RSIS Commentaries, No. 174. Singapore: Nanyang Technological University. https://dr.ntu.edu.sg//handle/10356/89818.
- Ang, Benjamin. 2020. “Singapore, ASEAN, and International Cybersecurity.” In Routledge Handbook of International Cybersecurity, edited by Eneken Tikk, and Mika Kerttunen, 218–226. London: Routledge.
- APF (Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada). 2019. “Explosive Growth for Southeast Asia’s Digital Economy.” https://www.asiapacific.ca/asia-watch/explosive-growth-southeast-asias-digital-economy.
- ASEAN. 2015a. “ASEAN Cooperation on Climate Change.” Accessed September 22, 2021. https://environment.asean.org/awgcc/.
- ASEAN. 2015b. “The 15th ASEAN Telecommunications and Information Technology Ministers Meeting and Related Meetings.” November 27. https://www.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/images/2015/November/statement/15%20–%20TELMIN-15-JMS%20-%20darft%2025112015%20CN%20JP%20KR%20IN%20US%20ITU_FINAL.pdf.
- ASEAN Regional Forum. 2018. “ASEAN Regional Forum Experts and Eminent Persons (ARF/EEP) Recommendations for ARF Initiatives on Promoting Cyber Security.” March 6. https://aseanregionalforum.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ANNEX-3_Report-of-the-Working-Group-on-ARF-Initiatives-on-Promoting-Cyber-Security-12th-ARF-EEPs.pdf.
- Baharudin, Hariz. 2018. “Singapore to Spend $30 Million over next 5 Years to Fund New Regional Cyber Security Centre.” The Straits Times, September 19. https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/singapore-to-spend-30-million-over-next-5-years-to-fund-new-regional-cyber-security-centre.
- Basu, Arindrajit, Irene Poetranto, and Justin Lau. 2021. “The UN Struggles to Make Progress on Securing Cyberspace.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, May 19. https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/05/19/un-struggles-to-make-progress-on-securing-cyberspace-pub-84491.
- Benincasa, Eugenio. 2021. “Filling the Gaps in ASEAN and EU Cybercrime Cooperation.” The Interpreter, February 1. https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/filling-gaps-asean-and-eu-cybercrime-cooperation.
- Bottomley, Edward-John. 2020. “SA Hit as Hackers Target Hospitals during Covid-19 Crisis – Here’s What Life May Be Facing.” Business Insider South Africa, June 10. https://www.businessinsider.co.za/life-hospitals-hit-by-cyberattack-2020-6.
- Brown, Deborah, and Anriette Esterhuysen. 2019. “Unpacking the GGE’s Framework on Responsible State Behaviour: Cyber Norms.” Global Partners Digital. December 19. https://www.gp-digital.org/publication/unpacking-the-gges-framework-on-responsible-state-behaviour-cyber-norms/.
- Buckholtz, Alison, and Ken Oloo. 2020. Tapping Africa’s $180 Billion Opportunity.” IFC Insights, Nov. https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/news_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/news ( and ( events/news/insights/internet-economy-africa.
- Buyoya, Pierre. 2006. “Toward a Stronger African Union.” The Brown Journal of World Affairs 12 (2): 165–175.
- Calandro, Enrico. 2020. “Partnering with Africa on Cyber Diplomacy.” Directions, July 1. https://directionsblog.eu/partnering-with-africa-on-cyber-diplomacy/.
- CSA Singapore. 2016. “Factsheet on ASEAN Cyber Capacity Programme.” https://www.csa.gov.sg/-/media/csa/documents/sicw2016/amcc/factsheet_accp_final.pdf.
- CSA Singapore. 2019. “CSA Hosts 14th Iteration of ASEAN CERT Incident Drill (ACID).” Cyber Security Agency of Singapore. September 10. https://www.csa.gov.sg/news/news-articles/csa-hosts-14th-iteration-of-asean-cert-incident-drill-acid.
- Daskal, Jennifer, and Debrae Kennedy-Mayo. 2020. “Budapest Convention: What Is It and How Is It Being Updated?” Cross-Border Data Forum. July 2. https://www.crossborderdataforum.org/budapest-convention-what-is-it-and-how-is-it-being-updated/.
- Dunn Cavelty, Myriam, and Andreas Wenger. 2020. “Cyber Security Meets Security Politics: Complex Technology, Fragmented Politics, and Networked Science.” Contemporary Security Policy 41 (1): 5–32. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2019.1678855.
- Egypt. 2020. “Egypt’s Comments on the Pre-Draft.” March. https://front.un-arm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/egypt-comments-on-the-predraft.pdf.
- Eloksari, Eisya A. 2020. “Indonesia’s Internet Economy to Grow More Slowly but Remain Region’s Biggest: Report.” The Jakarta Post, November 27. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/11/27/indonesias-internet-economy-to-grow-more-slowly-but-remain-regions-biggest-report.html.
- EUISS. 2021. “Regionalised Multilateralism? EU-Africa Cooperation in Cyberspace.” April 13. https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/regionalised-multilateralism-eu-africa-cooperation-cyberspace.
- Farrell, Henry, and Martha Finnemore. 2016. “Global Institutions Without a Global State.” In The Oxford Handbook of Historical Institutionalism, edited by Orfeo Fioretos, Tulia G. Falleti, and Adam Sheingate, 572–589. Oxford University Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199662814.013.34.
- Finnan, Daniel. 2015. “Lack of Laws Governing Cybercrime Making Africa a Safe Haven for Cybercriminals, interview.” RFI, February 16. https://www.rfi.fr/en/africa/20150215-lack-laws-governing-cybercrime-making-africa-safe-haven-cybercriminals-interview.
- Finnemore, Martha, and Duncan B. Hollis. 2016. “Constructing Norms for Global Cybersecurity.” American Journal of International Law 110 (3): 425–479.
- Finnemore, Martha, and Kathryn Sikkink. 1998. “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change.” International Organization 52 (4): 887–917.
- FireEye. 2015. “Southeast Asia: Cyber Threat Landscape.” https://www.fireeye.com/offers/rpt-sea-threat-landscape.html.
- GFCE. 2021. “AUC-GFCE Collaboration: ‘Enabling African Countries to Identify and Address Their Cyber Capacity Needs.’” Global Forum on Cyber Expertise. March 8. https://thegfce.org/auc-gfce-collaboration-enabling-african-countries-to-identify-and-address-their-cyber-capacity-needs/.
- GIP Digital Watch. 2020. “France and Partners Propose a Programme of Action for Advancing Responsible State Behaviour in Cyberspace.” October 8. https://dig.watch/updates/france-and-partners-propose-programme-action-advancing-responsible-state-behaviour.
- Gochero, Plaxedes, and Seetanah Boopen. 2020. “The Effect of Mining Foreign Direct Investment Inflow on the Economic Growth of Zimbabwe.” Journal of Economic Structures 9 (54), doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s40008-020-00230-4.
- Grigsby, Alex. 2016. “OSCE Agrees to New Confidence Building Measures. Pop the Champagne?” Council on Foreign Relations. March 31. https://www.cfr.org/blog/osce-agrees-new-confidence-building-measures-pop-champagne.
- Haacke, Jürgen. 2009. “The ASEAN Regional Forum: From Dialogue to Practical Security Cooperation?” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 22 (3): 427–449. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09557570903104057.
- Haas, Ernst B. 1990. When Knowledge Is Power. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Hajjar, Bandar. 2020. “The Children’s Continent: Keeping up with Africa’s Growth.” World Economic Forum, January 13. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/01/the-children-s-continent/.
- Hassib, Bassant, and James Shires. 2021. “Manipulating Uncertainty: Cybersecurity Politics in Egypt.” Journal of Cybersecurity 7 (1), doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/cybsec/tyaa026.
- Heinl, Caitríona H. 2014. “Regional Cybersecurity: Moving Toward a Resilient ASEAN Cybersecurity Regime.” Asia Policy 18: 131–160. doi:https://doi.org/10.1353/asp.2014.0026.
- Henriksen, Anders. 2019. “The End of the Road for the UN GGE Process: The Future Regulation of Cyberspace.” Journal of Cybersecurity 5 (1), doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/cybsec/tyy009.
- Hurwitz, Roger. 2014. “The Play of States: Norms and Security in Cyberspace.” American Foreign Policy Interests 36 (5): 322–331. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10803920.2014.969180.
- Ibrahim, Yaacob. 2016. “The ASEAN Ministerial Conference on Cybersecurity.” October 11. https://www.mci.gov.sg/pressroom/news-and-stories/pressroom/2016/10/the-asean-ministerial-conference-on-cybersecurity.
- Ibrahim, Yaacob. 2017. “A Southeast Asian Perspective Towards Cyber Norms in a Post-UNGGE World.” In Our Common Digital Future, edited by Samir Saran, 20–24. Observer Research Foundation. https://www.orfonline.org/research/our-common-digital-future-gccs-2017/.
- Indonesia. 2020a. “Indonesia’s Response on the Pre-Draft Report of the UN OEWG on the Developments in the Field of ICT in the Context of International Security.” April. https://front.un-arm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/indonesia-respose-to-oewg-ict-initial-pre-draft.pdf.
- Indonesia. 2020b. Indonesia’s Statements at the First and Second Substantive Sessions of the OEWG. https://webtv.un.org/.
- ITU. 2021. Global Cybersecurity Index 2020. https://www.itu.int/epublications/publication/global-cybersecurity-index-2020/en/.
- Jácome, Francine, Akihisa Matsuno, and Herbert Wulf. 2009. “Still Under Construction: Regional Organisationsʹ Capacities for Conflict Prevention.” INEF-Report, no. 97. https://duepublico2.uni-due.de/receive/duepublico_mods_00027001.
- Kafeero, Stephen. 2020. “Uganda’s Banks Have Been Plunged into Chaos by a Mobile Money Fraud Hack.” Quartz, October 11. https://qz.com/africa/1915884/uganda-banks-mtn-airtel-hacked-by-mobile-money-fraudsters/.
- Kavanagh, Camino. 2017. The United Nations, Cyberspace and International Peace and Security. UNIDR. https://www.unidir.org/files/publications/pdfs/the-united-nations-cyberspace-and-international-peace-and-security-en-691.pdf.
- Kenya. 2021. Kenya’s Statements at the First, Second, and Third Substantive Sessions of the OEWG. https://webtv.un.org/.
- Kumar, Sheetal. 2019. “Key Takeaways from the AU GGE Consultation.” Global Partners Digital. October 15. https://www.gp-digital.org/key-takeaways-from-the-au-gge-consultation/.
- Lee, Li Ying. 2019. “New ASEAN Committee to Implement Norms for Countries’ Behaviour in Cyberspace.” CNA, October 2. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/asean-cyberspace-working-level-committee-cybersecurity-11963602.
- Liaropoulos, Andrew. 2013. “Exercising State Sovereignty in Cyberspace: An International Cyber-Order Under Construction?” Journal of Information Warfare 12 (2): 19–26.
- Lim, Min Zhang. 2021. “Asean Plus Eight Welcome Extension of Ministerial-Level Security Hotline.” The Strait Times, June 16. https://straitstimes.com/singapore/asean-plus-eight-welcome-extension-of-ministerial-level-security-hotline.
- Matsubara, Mihoko. 2017. “How Japan Is Addressing Cybersecurity Awareness and Capacity-Building Challenges in ASEAN.” Security Roundtable. July 26. https://www.securityroundtable.org/how-japan-is-addressing-cybersecurity-awareness-and-capacity-building-challenges-in-asean/.
- Maurer, Tim. 2020. “A Dose of Realism: The Contestation and Politics of Cyber Norms.” Hague Journal on the Rule of Law 12 (2): 283–305. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s40803-019-00129-8.
- Maurer, Tim, and Robert Morgus. 2014. “Tipping the Scale: An Analysis of Global Swing States in the Internet Governance Debate.” Internet Governance Papers No. 7, Centre for International Governance Innovation. May 5. https://www.cigionline.org/publications/tipping-scale-analysis-global-swing-states-internet-governance-debate.
- McKune, Sarah. 2015. “Analysis of International Code of Conduct.” Citizen Lab. September 28. https://citizenlab.ca/2015/09/international-code-of-conduct/.
- McKune, Sarah, and Shazeda Ahmed. 2018. “The Contestation and Shaping of Cyber Norms Through China’s Internet Sovereignty Agenda.” International Journal of Communication 12: 3835–3855.
- Medina, Ayman Falak. 2020. “The 27th ASEAN Regional Forum: Salient Features.” ASEAN Briefing. September 18. https://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/the-27th-asean-regional-forum-salient-features/.
- Meyer, Paul. 2020. “Norms of Responsible State Behaviour in Cyberspace.” In The Ethics of Cybersecurity, edited by Markus Christen, Bert Gordijn, and Michele Loi, 347–360. The International Library of Ethics, Law and Technology. Cham: Springer. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29053-5_18.
- Morgus, Robert, Jocelyn Woolbright, and Justin Sherman. 2018. “The Digital Deciders.” New America. October 23. https://www.newamerica.org/cybersecurity-initiative/reports/digital-deciders/.
- Moyo, Admire. 2021. “President Ramaphosa Signs Cyber Crimes Bill into Law.” ITWeb, June 2. https://itweb.co.za/content/LPp6VMrDJJovDKQz/.
- Murithi, Timothy. 2005. The African Union: Pan-Africanism, Peacebuilding and Development. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing.
- Mutsaka, Farai. 2020. “Zimbabwe’s President Meets Visiting Chinese Foreign Minister.” The Associated Press, January 13. https://apnews.com/article/f4d6cf1bbbb7d42afd9001cdd86d112f.
- NAM. 2020. “NAM Working Paper for the Second Substantive Session of the Open-ended Working Group on Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security (OEWG).” April. https://front.un-arm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/nam-wp-to-the-oewg-final.pdf.
- Narine, Shaun. 2002. “ASEAN in the Aftermath: The Consequences of the East Asian Economic Crisis.” Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations 8 (2): 179–194.
- Noor, Elina. 2018. “ASEAN Takes a Bold Cybersecurity Step.” The Diplomat, October 4. https://thediplomat.com/2018/10/asean-takes-a-bold-cybersecurity-step/.
- Noor, Elina. 2020. “Positioning ASEAN in Cyberspace.” Asia Policy 27 (2): 107–114. doi:https://doi.org/10.1353/asp.2020.0033.
- NTI. 2019a. “African Union (AU).” June 30. https://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/african-union-au/.
- NTI. 2019b. “Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).” March 26. https://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/association-southeast-asian-nations-asean/.
- NTI (Nuclear Threat Initiative). 2015. “Nuclear-Weapons-Free Zones: Comparative Chart.” August 3. https://media.nti.org/pdfs/apmnwfzc_nY9cpIi.pdf.
- Nye, Joseph S. 2014. The Regime Complex for Managing Global Cyber Activities. Global Commission on Internet Governance. May 2014. https://www.cigionline.org/sites/default/files/gcig_paper_no1.pdf.
- Onyando, Winnie. 2021. “Cybercrimes surge by 37pc as usage of Internet increases.” Business Daily, October 14. https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/corporate/technology/cybercrimes-surge-37pc-as-usage-of-internet-increases-3582412.
- Orji, Uchenna Jerome. 2018. “The African Union Convention on Cybersecurity: A Regional Response Towards Cyber Stability?” Masaryk University Journal of Law and Technology 12 (2): 91–130. doi:https://doi.org/10.5817/MUJLT2018-2-1.
- Ott, Nikolas, and Anna-Maria Osula. 2019. “The Rise of the Regionals: How Regional Organisations Contribute to International Cyber Stability Negotiations at the United Nations Level.” In 2019 11th International Conference on Cyber Conflict (CyCon), 1–25. Tallinn, Estonia: IEEE. doi:https://doi.org/10.23919/CYCON.2019.8756863.
- Pytlak, Allison. 2021. “Building on-and Establishing-Foundations.” Reaching Critical Will. June 3. https://reachingcriticalwill.org/disarmament-fora/ict/oewg-ii/cyber-monitor/15341-cyber-peace-security-monitor-vol-2-no-1.
- Reiber, Jonathan, and Arun Mohan Sukumar. 2017. “Asian Cybersecurity Futures.” Center for Long-Term Cybersecurity. https://cltc.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/asianfutures.pdf.
- Sarkin, Jeremy. 2016. “Is the African Union’s Position on Non-Indifference Making a Difference?: The Implementation of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) in Africa in Theory and Practice.” Journal of African Union Studies 5 (1): 5–37.
- Schmitt, Michael, and Liis Vihul. 2017. “International Cyber Law Politicized: The UN GGE’s Failure to Advance Cyber Norms.” Just Security, June 30. https://www.justsecurity.org/42768/international-cyber-law-politicized-gges-failure-advance-cyber-norms/.
- Signé, Landry, and Kevin Signé. 2021. “How African States Can Improve Their Cybersecurity.” Brookings. March 16. https://www.brookings.edu/techstream/how-african-states-can-improve-their-cybersecurity/.
- Singapore. 2020a. Singapore’s Statements at the First and Second Substantive Sessions of the OEWG. https://webtv.un.org/.
- Singapore. 2020b. “Singapore’s Written Comment on the Chair’s Pre-Draft of the OEWG Report.” April. https://front.un-arm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/singapore-written-comment-on-pre-draft-oewg-report.pdf.
- South Africa. 2020. South Africa’s Statements at the First and Second Substantive Sessions of the OEWG. https://webtv.un.org/.
- Spandler, Kilian. 2019. “Decolonization: Setting the Stage for Regionalism.” In Regional Organizations in International Society, 51–74. Palgrave Studies in International Relations. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96896-4_3.
- Stubbs, Richard. 2019. “ASEAN Sceptics Versus ASEAN Proponents: Evaluating Regional Institutions.” The Pacific Review 32 (6): 923–950. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2019.1611627.
- Tham, Yuen-C. 2020. “Singapore, UN to cooperate on checklist for countries to implement cyber-security norms.” The Straits Times, October 9. https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/politics/singapore-un-to-cooperate-on-checklist-for-countries-to-implement-cybersecurity.
- Tikk, Eneken, and Mika Kerttunen. 2017. “The Alleged Demise of the UN GGE: An Autopsy and Eulogy.” Cyber Policy Institute. https://cpi.ee/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/2017-Tikk-Kerttunen-Demise-of-the-UN-GGE-2017-12-17-ET.pdf.
- Tran Dai, Candice, and Miguel Alberto Gomez. 2018. “Challenges and Opportunities for Cyber Norms in ASEAN.” Journal of Cyber Policy 3 (2): 217–235. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23738871.2018.1487987.
- Tsebelis, George. 1999. “Veto Players and Law Production in Parliamentary Democracies: An Empirical Analysis.” American Political Science Review 93 (3): 591–608. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/2585576.
- Turianskyi, Yarik. 2020. “Africa and Europe: Cyber Governance Lessons.” SAIIA Policy Insights No. 77, South African Institute of International Affairs. January. https://saiia.org.za/research/africa-and-europe-cyber-governance-lessons/.
- UN General Assembly. 2018. “Developments in the field of information and telecommunications in the context of international security (A/RES/73/27).” December 11. https://undocs.org/pdf?symbol=en/A/RES/73/27.
- UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2016. “Empowering Youth in Asia and the Pacific.” https://www.asia-pacific.undp.org/content/rbap/en/home/democratic-governance-and-peacebuilding/empowering-youth.html.
- UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime). 2021. “UNODC Report: Darknet Cybercrime Is on the Rise in Southeast Asia.” February 25. https://www.unodc.org/southeastasiaandpacific/en/2021/02/darknet-cybercrime-southeast-asia/story.html.
- US Department of State. 2019. “Joint Statement on Advancing Responsible State Behavior in Cyberspace. September 23. https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-advancing-responsible-state-behavior-in-cyberspace/.
- Waters, Christopher. 2001. “After Decolonization: Australia and the Emergence of the Non-Aligned Movement in Asia, 1954–55.” Diplomacy & Statecraft 12 (2): 153–174. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09592290108406206.
- Weber, Katja. 2011. “Lessons from the ASEAN Regional Forum: Transcending the Image of Paper Tiger?” In The Security Governance of Regional Organizations, edited by Emil J. Kirchner, and Roberto Dominguez, 219–242. London: Routledge.
- Welz, Martin. 2016. “From Non-Interference Towards Non-Indifference: An Ongoing Paradigm Shift Within the African Union?” In Towards an African Peace and Security Regime, edited by João Gomes Porto, and Ulf Engel, 31–52. London: Routledge. doi:https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315550589.
- Williams, Marc, and Duncan McDuie-Ra. 2018. “Organizing a Regional Response to Climate Change in the Pacific.” In Combatting Climate Change in the Pacific: The Role of Regional Organizations, 13–38. Cham: Springer. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69647-8_2.