Unblurring the lines: military cyber operations and international law

References

• Adamson, L. 2020. “International Law and International Cyber Norms A Continuum?” In Governing Cyberspace: Behavior, Power, and Diplomacy, edited by D. Broeders, and B. van den Berg, 19–44. London: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Additional Protocol I. 1977. Protocol Additional (I) to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts. Adopted at Geneva on 8 June 1977, entered into force on 7 December 1978.
   Google Scholar
• Akande, D., A. Coco, and T. de Souza Dias. 2021. “Old Habits Die Hard: Applying Existing International Law in Cyberspace and Beyond.” EJIL:Talk! 5 January 2021. https://www.ejiltalk.org/old-habits-die-hard-applying-existing-international-law-in-cyberspace-and-beyond/.
   Google Scholar
• Ambos, K. 2015. “International Criminal Responsibility in Cyberspace.” In Research Handbook on International Law and Cyberspace, edited by N. Tsagourias, and R. Buchan, 118–143. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
   Google Scholar
• ARSIWA. 2001. Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts. International Law Commission. UN Doc A/56/10.
   Google Scholar
• Australia. 2021. “National Contribution on the Subject of How International Law Applies to the Use of Information and Communications Technologies by States.” In GGE 2021b, 3–17.
   Google Scholar
• Bartolini, G. 2010. “The Participation of Civilians in Hostilities.” In Rules and Institutions of International Humanitarian Law Put to the Test of Recent Armed Conflicts, edited by M. Matheson, and D. Momtaz, 321–409. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Besson, S. 2010. “Theorizing the Sources of International Law.” In The Philosophy of International Law, edited by S. Besson, and J. Tasioulas, 163–185. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Broeders, D. 2021. “The (Im)Possibilities of Addressing Election Interference and the Public Core of the Internet in the UN GGE and OEWG: A Mid-Process Assessment.” Journal of Cyber Policy. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23738871.2021.1916976
   Google Scholar
• Broeders, D., and B. van den Berg, eds. 2020. Governing Cyberspace: Behavior, Power, and Diplomacy. London: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Brooks, R. 2018. “Rule of law in the gray zone.” Modern War Institute. 2 July 2018. https://mwi.usma.edu/rule-law-gray-zone/.
   Google Scholar
• Cameron, L., and V. Chetail. 2013. Privatizing War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• CCDCOE. 2021a. “Strategy and Governance: Statements on International Law.” https://ccdcoe.org/library/strategy-and-governance/.
   Google Scholar
• CCDCOE. 2021b. “CCDCOE to Host the Tallinn Manual 3.0 Process.” https://ccdcoe.org/news/2020/ccdcoe-to-host-the-tallinn-manual-3-0-process/.
   Google Scholar
• CCDCOE. 2021c. “Cyber Law Toolkit Presents Annual Update Including an Overview of National Positions, Invites New Submissions.” https://ccdcoe.org/news/2021/cyber-law-toolkit-presents-annual-update-including-an-overview-of-national-positions-invites-new-submissions/.
   Google Scholar
• Chile. 2020. Response submitted by Chile to the OAS Inter-American Juridical Committee Questionnaire (14 January 2020), cited in OAS. “Improving Transparency: International Law and State Cyber Operations: Fifth Report.” OAS Doc. CJI/doc. 615/20 rev.1, 7 August 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Clarke, R. A., and R. K. Knake. 2010. Cyber War: The Next Threat to National Security and What to Do About It. New York: Ecco.
   Google Scholar
• Cuba. 2020. “Considerations on the Initial Pre-draft of the Open-Ended Working Group (OEWG) on Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security.” 15 April 2020. https://front.un-arm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/considerations-on-the-initial-pre-draft-of-the-oewg-cybersecurity-cuba-15-april.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Dahinden, M. 2021. Swiss Neutrality in the Age of Cyber Warfare. Geneva: ICT4Peace Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Delerue, F. 2020. Cyber Operations and International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Delerue, F., F. Douzet, and A. Géry. 2020. The Geopolitical Representations of International Law in the International Negotiations on the Security and Stability of Cyberspace, Report No. 75, IRSEM/EU Cyber Direct, November 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Denmark. 2016. Military Manual on International Law Relevant to Danish Armed Forces in International Operations. Danish Ministry of Defence. Defence Command Denmark. September 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Douzet, F., and A. Géry. 2021. “Cyberspace is Used, First and Foremost, to Wage Wars: Proliferation, Security and Stability in Cyberspace.” Journal of Cyber Policy 6 (1): 96–113.
   Google Scholar
• Finland. 2020. “International Law and Cyberspace: Finland’s National Positions.” October 2020. https://um.fi/documents/35732/0/KyberkannatPDF_EN.pdf/12bbbbde-623b-9f86-b254-07d5af3c6d85?t=1603097522727.
   Google Scholar
• Finnemore, M., and D. Hollis. 2016. “Constructing Norms for Global Cybersecurity.” American Journal of International Law 110 (3): 425–479.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• First Oxford Statement. 2020. Oxford Statement on the International Law Protections in Relation to Cyber Operations Targeting the Health Care Sector. Oxford: Oxford Institute for Ethics, Law and Armed Conflict. May 2020. https://www.elac.ox.ac.uk/the-oxford-statement-on-the-international-law-protections-against-cyber-operations-targeting-the-hea#/.
   Google Scholar
• Fleck. 2021. “Scope of Application of International Humanitarian Law.” In The Handbook of International Humanitarian Law. 4th Edition, edited by D. Fleck, 50–80. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• France. 2019. “International Law Applied to Operations in Cyberspace.” Ministère des Armées.
   Google Scholar
• Gasser, H. 1993. International Humanitarian Law: An Introduction. Geneva: Henry Dunant Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Geiss, R., and H. Lahmann. 2021. “Protection of Data in Armed Conflict.” International Law Studies 97: 556–572.
   Google Scholar
• Geneva Convention III. 1949. Convention (III) relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War. Adopted at Geneva on 12 August 1949, entered into force on 21 October 1950.
   Google Scholar
• Germany. 2021. “On the Application of International Law in Cyberspace: Position Paper.” March 2021. https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/blob/2446304/32e7b2498e10b74fb17204c54665bdf0/on-the-application-of-international-law-in-cyberspace-data.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• GGE. 2013. “Report of the Group of Governmental Experts on Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security.” UN Doc. A/68/98, 24 June 2013.
   Google Scholar
• GGE. 2015. “Report of the Group of Governmental Experts on Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security.” UN Doc. A/70/174, 22 July 2015.
   Google Scholar
• GGE. 2021a. “Report of the Group of Governmental Experts on Advancing Responsible State Behaviour in Cyberspace in the Context of International Security.” UN Doc. A/76/135, 14 July 2021.
   Google Scholar
• GGE. 2021b. “Official Compendium of Voluntary National Contributions on the Subject of How International Law Applies to the Use of Information and Communications Technologies by States Submitted by Participating Governmental Experts in the Group of Governmental Experts on Advancing Responsible State Behaviour in Cyberspace in the Context of International Security Established Pursuant to General Assembly Resolution 73/266.” UN Doc. A/76/136, 13 July 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Gisel, L., T. Rodenhäuser, and K. Dörmann. 2020. “Twenty Years On: International Humanitarian Law and the Protection of Civilians Against the Effects of Cyber Operations During Armed Conflicts.” International Review of the Red Cross 102 (913): 287–334.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grigsby, A. 2017. “The End of Cyber Norms.” Survival 59 (6): 109–122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horowitz, J. 2021. “The International Legal Consequences of Enrolling Private Companies and Civilians in National Defense Cyber Operations During Armed Conflict.” [working title] Forthcoming.
   Google Scholar
• ICC Statute. 1998. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Adopted at Rome on 17 July 1998, entered into force on 1 July 2002.
   Google Scholar
• ICRC. 2005. Customary International Humanitarian Law, Volume I:Rules, edited by J.-M. Henckaerts, and L. Doswald-Beck. Geneva: ICRC.
   Google Scholar
• ICRC. 2009. Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities Under International Humanitarian Law, edited by N. Melzer. Geneva: ICRC.
   Google Scholar
• ICRC. 2014. “What is International Humanitarian Law?” https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/what_is_ihl.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• ICRC. 2019. “International Humanitarian Law and Cyber Operations During Armed Conflicts: ICRC Position Paper.” November 2019. https://www.icrc.org/en/document/international-humanitarian-law-and-cyber-operations-during-armed-conflicts.
   Google Scholar
• ICRC. 2021a. Avoiding Civilian Harm from Military Cyber Operations During Armed Conflict, edited by E. Lawson, and K. Mačák. Geneva: ICRC. https://www.icrc.org/en/document/avoiding-civilian-harm-from-military-cyber-operations.
   Google Scholar
• ICRC. 2021b. Commentary on the Third Geneva Convention. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Israel. 2021. “Israel’s Perspective on Key Legal and Practical Issues Concerning the Application of International Law to Cyber Operations.” International Law Studies 97: 395–406.
   Google Scholar
• Japan. 2021. “Basic Position of the Government of Japan on International Law Applicable to Cyber Operations.” 28 May 2021. https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/100200935.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, D. R., and D. Post. 1996. “Law and Borders: The Rise of Law in Cyberspace.” Stanford Law Review 48 (5): 1367–1402.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LOSC. 1982. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Adopted at Montego Bay, Jamaica, on 10 December 1982, entered into force on 16 November 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Lynn, W. J. 2010. “Defending a New Domain:The Pentagon’s Cyberstrategy.” Foreign Affairs. September/October. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2010-09-01/defending-new-domain.
   Google Scholar
• Mačák, K. 2015. “Military Objectives 2.0: The Case for Interpreting Computer Data as Objects Under International Humanitarian Law.” Israel Law Review 48 (1): 55–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mačák, K. 2017a. “From Cyber Norms to Cyber Rules: Re-Engaging States as Law-Makers.” Leiden Journal of International Law 30 (4): 877–899.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mačák, K. 2017b. “From the Vanishing Point Back to the Core: The Impact of the Development of the Cyber Law of War on General International Law.” In Defending the Core, edited by H. Rõigas, R. Jakschis, L. Lindström, and T. Minárik, 135–148. Tallinn: NATO CCD COE.
   Google Scholar
• Mačák, K., and L. Gisel. 2022. “Rules in a Cyber Conflict.” In Cyber Defence in the European Union, edited by P. Pawlak, and F. Delerue. Chaillot Paper. Paris: EUISS, forthcoming.
   Google Scholar
• Mačák, K., L. Gisel, and T. Rodenhäuser. 2020. “Cyber Attacks against Hospitals and the COVID-19 Pandemic: How Strong are International Law Protections?” Just Security. 27 March 2020. https://www.justsecurity.org/69407/cyber-attacks-against-hospitals-and-the-covid-19-pandemic-how-strong-are-international-law-protections/.
   Google Scholar
• McCosker, S. 2020. “Domains of Warfare.” In Oxford Guide to International Humanitarian Law, edited by B. Saul, and D. Akande, 77–98. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Moynihan, H. 2020. “The Vital Role of International Law in the Framework for Responsible State Behaviour in Cyberspace.” Journal of Cyber Policy. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23738871.2020.1832550
   Google Scholar
• Ney, P. 2020. “Department of Defense General Counsel Remarks at US Cyber Command Legal Conference.” 2 March 2020. https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Speeches/Speech/Article/2099378/dod-general-counsel-remarks-at-us-cyber-command-legal-conference/.
   Google Scholar
• Nicaragua. 2020. “Nicaragua’s Considerations on the Initial Document of the Open-Ended Working Group on Progress in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security.” 3 April 2020. https://front.un-arm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/minic-mis-143-04-2020-permanent-mission-of-switzerland.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Norway. 2013. Manual i Krigens Folkerett. Helsinki: Merkur-Trykk.
   Google Scholar
• Nuclear Weapons. 1996. “International Court of Justice.” Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996, 226.
   Google Scholar
• OEWG. 2021. “Report of the Open-ended Working Group on Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security.” UN Doc. A/75/816, 18 March 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Perlroth, N., and D. E. Sanger. 2015. “Obama Calls for New Cooperation to Wrangle the ‘Wild West’ Internet.” New York Times, 13 February 2015. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/14/business/obama-urges-tech-companies-to-cooperate-on-internet-security.html.
   Google Scholar
• Phillimore, R. J. 1879. International Law, Volume III. London: Butterworths.
   Google Scholar
• Rid, T. 2013. Cyber War Will Not Take Place. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Roguski, P. 2020. Application of International Law to Cyber Operations: A Comparative Analysis of States’ Views. The Hague Program for Cyber Norms Policy Brief. March 2020. https://www.thehaguecybernorms.nl/research-and-publication-posts/application-of-international-law-to-cyber-operations-a-comparative-analysis-of-states-views.
   Google Scholar
• Romania. 2021. “National Contribution on the Subject of how International Law Applies to the Use of Information and Communications Technologies by States.” In GGE 2021b, 75–79.
   Google Scholar
• Ruhl, C., D. Hollis, W. Hoffman, and T. Maurer. 2020. Cyberspace and Geopolitics: Assessing Global Cybersecurity Norm Processes at a Crossroads. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Working Paper. February 2020. https://carnegieendowment.org/files/Cyberspace_and_Geopolitics.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Russia. 2020a. “Commentary of the Russian Federation on the Initial ‘Pre-draft’ of the Final Report of the United Nations Open-Ended Working Group on Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security.” April 2020. https://front.un-arm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/russian-commentary-on-oweg-zero-draft-report-eng.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Russia. 2020b. “Statement by Dr. Vladimir Shin, Deputy Director of the Department of International Information Security of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, at the Online Consultations of the Open-Ended Working Group on the Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security.” 30 September 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Ryan, D. J., M. Dion, E. Tikk, and J. J. Ryan. 2011. “International Cyberlaw: Normative Approach.” Georgetown Journal of International Law 42 (4): 1161–1198.
   Google Scholar
• Sassòli, M. 2019. International Humanitarian Law: Rules, Controversies, and Solutions to Problems Arising in Warfare. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
   Google Scholar
• Schmitt, M. 2019. “Wired Warfare 3.0: Protecting the Civilian Population During Cyber Operations.” International Review of the Red Cross 101 (1): 333–355.
   Google Scholar
• Schmitt, M., and L. Vihul. 2014. “The Nature of International Law Cyber Norms.” Tallinn Paper No. 5. Special Expanded Issue. NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence.
   Google Scholar
• Swanson, S. R. 2011. “Google Set Sail: Ocean-Based Server Farms and International Law.” Connecticut Law Review 43: 709–751.
   Google Scholar
• Tallinn Manual. 2017. Tallinn Manual 2.0 on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Operations, 2nd Edition, edited by M. Schmitt, and L. Vihul. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tikk, E. 2020. “International Law in Cyberspace: Mind the gap.” Cyber Policy Institute. March 2020. https://eucyberdirect.eu/content_research/international-law-in-cyberspace-mind-the-gap/.
   Google Scholar
• UN Doc A/Res/68/243. 2013. Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security. 27 December 2013.
   Google Scholar
• United States. 1999. “An Assessment of International Legal Issues in Information Operations.” Department of Defense, Office of General Counsel. May 1999.
   Google Scholar
• United States. 2016. Department of Defense Law of War Manual. Department of Defense, Office of General Counsel. June 2015 (updated December 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, J. R. 2014. “Cyber Warfare Ushers in 5th Dimension of Human Conflict.” Military & Aerospace Electronics 25 (12): 8–15.
   Google Scholar