Solder joint failures under thermo-mechanical loading conditions – A review

References

• Ahmed S, Basit M, Suhling JC, P. Lall. “Effects of ageing on SAC-Bi solder materials,” 2016 15th IEEE Intersociety Conference on Thermal and Thermomechanical Phenomena in Electronic Systems (ITherm), Las Vegas, NV, 2016, pp. 746-754.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang J, Hai Z, Thirugnanasambandam S, et al. Correlation of aging effects on creep rate and reliability in lead free solder joints. Smta J. 2010;25(3):19–28.
   Google Scholar
• Amalu EH. Modelling of the reliability of flip chip lead-free solder joints at high-temperature excursions. Amalu, Emeka Hyginus, Medway, Kent, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Kanlayasiri K, Sukpimai K. Effects of indium on the intermetallic layer between low-Ag SAC0307-xIn lead-free solders and Cu substrate. J Alloys Compd. 2016;668:169–175.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Tu K. Materials Science & engineering. Struct Prop Lead-free Solders Bear Micro Nano Part. 2014;82(1):1–32.
   Google Scholar
• IPC. Round robin testing and analysis of lead free solder pastes with alloys of tin, silver, copper” – final report. IPC Solder Products Value Council, Chicago, IL, 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Plumbridge WJ. Second Generation Lead-free Solder Alloys – A Challenge to Thermodynamics. Monatsh. Chem. 2005;136(11):1811–1821.
   Google Scholar
• Schueller R, Blattau N, Arnold J, and Hillman, C., 2010. Second generation Pb-free alloys. SMTA Journal, 23(1), pp.18-26.
   Google Scholar
• Ji F, Gao LZXSB,L, Sheng Z, et al. Reliability evaluation of QFN devices soldered joints with creep model. Chin J Mech Eng (CJME). 2011;24(3):428.
   Google Scholar
• Sun L, Zhang L, Zhong SJ, et al. Reliability study of industry Sn3.0Ag0.5Cu/Cu lead-free soldered joints in electronic packaging. J Mater Sci. 2015;26(11):9164–9170.
   Google Scholar
• Choudhury P, Ribas M, Pandher R, R. S., Kumar, A., Mukherjee, S., Sarkar, S., & Singh, B. Development of lead-free alloys with ultra-high thermo- mechanical reliability. SMTA Int. 2015;128–133, 1 10.
   Google Scholar
• Pandher RS, Lewis BG, Vangaveti R, and Singh, B. Drop shock reliability of lead-free alloys - effect of micro-additives. 2007 Proceedings 57th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, Reno, NV, pp. 669–676, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Yang L, Ge J, Liu H, et al. Effect of cooling rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Sn-1.0Ag-0.5Cu–0.2BaTiO3 composite solder. J Electron Mater. 2015;44(11):4595–4603.
   Google Scholar
• Liang Z, Yonghuan G, Lei S, et al. Reliability of SnAgCuFe Solder Joints in WLCSP30 Device. Rare Metal MaterEng. 2016;45(11):2823–2826.
   Google Scholar
• Frear D, Ramanathan LN, Jang JW, et al. Emerging reliability challenges in electronic packaging. in IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium Proceedings, Phoenix, AZ, USA, 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Li H, An T, Bie X, et al.. Thermal fatigue reliability analysis of PBGA with Sn63Pb37 solder joints. in 2016 17th International Conference on Electronic Packaging Technology (ICEPT) Cite this publication, Wuhan, China, 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Lechovič E, Hodúlová E, Szewczyková B, et al. Solder joint reliability. in Institute of Production Technologies, Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Trnava, Slovak Republic, 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Shen C, Hai Z, Zhao C, et al. Packaging reliability effect of ENIG and ENEPIG surface finishes in board level thermal test under long-term aging and cycling. NCBI. 2017 May;10(5):451.
   Google Scholar
• Shnawah DA, Mohd MF, Badruddin SA. A review on thermal cycling and drop impact reliability of SAC solder joint in portable electronic products. Microelectron Reliab. 2012 January;52(1):90–99.
   Google Scholar
• Alam M, Chana Y, Tu K. Elimination of Au-embrittlement in solder joints on Au/Ni metallization. Mater Res Soc. 2004 May;19(5):1303–1306.
   Google Scholar
• Shangguan D. Lead-free solder interconnect reliability. ASM Int. 2005;1–21.
   Google Scholar
• Chen C, Hou F, Liu F, et al. Thermo-mechanical reliability analysis of a RF SiP module based on LTCC substrate. Microelectron Reliab. 2017 December;79:38–47.
   Google Scholar
• Forde M, Manning K, Kudtarkar S Solder joint reliability: an integrated study of electromigration, thermal migration and thermo- mechanical effects. in Integrated Reliability Workshop Final Report (IRW), 2012 IEEE International, South Lake Tahoe, CA, USA, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Xian J, Zenga G, Belyakov S, et al. Anisotropic thermal expansion of Ni3Sn4, Ag3Sn, Cu3Sn, Cu6Sn5 and βSn. Elsevier. 2017 August 17;91:50–64.
   Google Scholar
• Ogbomo O, Amalu EH, Ekere N, et al. Effect of coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) mismatch of solder joint materials in photovoltaic (PV) modules operating in elevated temperature climate on the joint’s damage. in 27th International Conference on Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing, FAIM2017, Modena, Italy, 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Kanjilal a, Kumar P. Growth of interfacial intermetallic compound layer in diffusion-bonded SAC–Cu solder joints during different types of thermomechanical excursion. in Journal of Electronic Materials, Bangalore, 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Liu E, Zahner T, Besold S, et al. Location resolved transient thermal analysis to investigate crack growth in solder joints. in 016 22nd International Workshop on Thermal Investigations of ICs and Systems (THERMINIC), Budapest, 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Li X, Sun R, Wang Y. a review of typical thermal fatigue failure models for solder joints of electronic components. Mat Sci Eng. 2017 September;242:1–5.
   Google Scholar
• Shirator M, Yu Q, Kim D-S. The effect of inter-metallic compound on thermal fatigue reliability of lead-free solder joints(Electronic Devices). in Proceedings of the Asian Pacific Conference on Fracture and Strength and International Conference on Advanced Technology in Experimental Mechanics, Yokohama, 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Tilgner R. Physics of failure for interconnect structures: an essay. Microsyst Technol. 2009 January;15(1):129–138.
   Google Scholar
• Basaran C, Chandaroy R. Using Finite element analysis for simulation of reliability tests on solder joints in microelectronic packaging. Comput Struct. 2000 January;74(2):215–231.
   Google Scholar
• Mallik S, Kaiser F. Reliability study of subsea electronic systems subjected to accelerated thermal cycle ageing. Int Assoc Eng. 2014 July 2-4:1–4.
   Google Scholar
• Shen Y. Thermo-mechanical stresses in copper interconnects -a modelling analysis. Microelectron Eng. 2006;83(3):446–459.
   Google Scholar
• Lau J. Thermal stress and strain in microelectronics packaging. Reinhold VN, Ed. Vol. 13, New York, USA: Springer; 1993. p. 114.
   Google Scholar
• Noda N, Hetnarski RB, Tanigawa Y. Thermal stresses. New York: Taylor & Francis; 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Yang SY, Kim I, Lee S-B. A study on the thermal fatigue behavior of solder joints under power cycling conditions. IEEE Trans Compon Packag Technol. 2008;31(1):3–12.
   Google Scholar
• Choi C, Dasgupta a. Fatigue of solder interconnects in microelectronic assemblies under random vibration. Maryland, Elsevier, pp. 16–165, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Coyle RJ, Sweatman K, Arfaei B. Thermal fatigue evaluation of Pb-free solder joints: results, lessons learned, and future trends. J Miner Metals Mater Soc (TMS). 2015 October;67(10):2394–2415.
   Google Scholar
• Huang C, Yang D, Wu B, et al.. Failure mode of SAC305 lead-free solder joint under thermal stress. in 2012 International Conference on Electronic Packaging Technology & High Density Packaging, China, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Magnien MJ. Investigation of mechanical behavior and failure mechanisms in miniaturized solder interconnects. University of Vienna, Vienna, 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Petrone G, Barbagallo C, Scionti M. Thermo-mechanical analysis and fatigue life prediction for an electronic Surface-Mount Device (SMD). in Proceedings of the 2015 COMSOL Conference in Grenoble, Catania, Italy, 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Gektin V, Bar-Cohen a, Ames J. Coffin-Manson fatigue model of underfilled flip-chips. IEEE Trans Compon Packag Manuf Technol. 1997 September;20(3):317–326.
   Google Scholar
• Pecht M, Dasgupta a. Physics-of-failure: an approach to reliable product development. IEEE 1995 International Integrated Reliability Workshop. Final Report, pp. 1–4, 22-25 October 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Chauhan P, Osterman M, Lee SWR, et al. Critical review of the engelmaier model for solder joint creep fatigue reliability. IEEE Trans Compon Packag Technol. 2009 September;32(3):693–700.
   Google Scholar
• Zhu S-P, Yue P, Yu Z-Y, et al. A combined high and low cycle fatigue model for life prediction of turbine blades. Materials (Basel). 2017;10(7):698–704.
   Google Scholar
• Knecht, S. and Fox, L., 1991. Integrated matrix creep: application to accelerated testing and lifetime prediction. In Solder Joint Reliability (pp. 508-544). Springer, Boston, MA..
   Google Scholar
• Pan T. Critical accumulated strain energy (case) failure criterion for thermal cycling fatigue of solder joints. J Electron Packag Trans ASME. 1994;116(8):163–170.
   Google Scholar
• Sun FQ, Liu JC, Cao ZQ, et al. Modified Norris–Landzberg model and optimum design of temperature cycling alt. Strength Mater. 2016 January;48(1):135–145.
   Google Scholar
• Tvergaard V. Influence of voids on shear band instabilities under plane strain conditions. Int J Fract. 1981;17(4):389–407.
   Google Scholar
• Fel H, Yazzie K, Chawla N, et al. The effect of random voids in the modified Gurson model. J Electron Mater. 2011;41(2):177–183.
   Google Scholar
• Gurson a. Continuum theory of ductile rupture by void nucleation and growth: part i—yield criteria and flow rules for porous ductile media. J Eng Mater Technol. 1977;99(1):2–15.
   Google Scholar
• G. Tang, B. An, Y. Wu and F. Wu, “Finite element analysis of Sn-Ag-Cu solder joint failure under impact test,” 2009 International Conference on Electronic Packaging Technology & High-Density Packaging, Beijing, 2009, pp. 1220-1224.
   Google Scholar
• Xi L, Songlin Z. Changes in mechanical properties of vehicle components after strengthening under low-amplitude loads below the fatigue limit. Fatigue Fracture Eng Mater Struct. 2009 September 9;31(10):847–855.
   Google Scholar
• Dowling NE. Mechanical behavior of materials In Prasad KS, Narayanasamy R (Eds.) 4th. Essex, England: Pearson Education Limited. 2013. 40–802.
   Google Scholar
• Santecchia E, Hamouda AMS, Musharavati F, et al. A review on fatigue life prediction methods for metals. Adv Mater Sci Eng. 2016;1–26. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/9573524
   Google Scholar
• Miner MA. Cumulative damage in fatigue. J Appl Mech. 1945;12:A159–A164.
   Google Scholar
• Ayoub G, Naït-abdelaziz M, Zaïri F, et al. Multiaxial fatigue life prediction of rubber-like materials using the continuum damage mechanics approach. Procedia Eng. 2010 April;2(1):985–993.
   Google Scholar
• Suresh S. Fatigue of Materials. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1991.
   Google Scholar
• Palmgren a. Die lebensdauer von kugellagern. Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure. 1924;68:339–341.
   Google Scholar
• Skelton RP. Energy criteria and cumulative damage during fatigue crack growth. Int J Fatigue. 1998;20(9):641–649.
   Google Scholar
• Newby M. Estimation of Paris-Erdogan law parameters and the influence of environmental factors on crack growth. Int J Fatigue. 1991;13(4):291–301.
   Google Scholar
• Wang GS. An EPFM analysis of crack initiation, stable growth and instability. Eng Fract Mech. 1995;50(2):261–282.
   Google Scholar
• Rice JR. a path independent integral and the approximate analysis of strain concentration by notches and cracks. J Appl Mech. 1968;35(2):379–386.
   Google Scholar
• S. Wiese, S. Jakschik, F. Feustel and E. Meusel, “Fracture behaviour of flip-chip solder joints,” 2001 Proceedings. 51st Electronic Components and Technology Conference (Cat. No.01CH37220), Orlando, FL, USA, 2001, pp. 1299-1306, IEEE.
   Google Scholar
• Guo Z, Conrad H. Fatigue crack growth rate in 63Sn37Pb solder joints. J Electron Packag. 1993 June 01;115(2):1–6.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang Q, Dasgupta a, Haswell P. Isothermal mechanical durability of three selected PB-free solders: Sn3.9Ag0.6Cu, Sn3.5Ag, and Sn0.7Cu. J Electron Packag. 2005 May 03;127(4):512–522.
   Google Scholar
• DeMilo C, Bergad C, Forni R, et al. Thermally induced stresses resulting from coefficient of thermal expansion differentials between an LED sub-mount material and various mounting substrates. integrated optoelectronic devices. Inter Soc Optics Photonics. 2007. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1117/12.697489,
   Google Scholar
• Yifei Zhang, Zijie Cai, J. C. Suhling, P. Lall and M. J. Bozack, “The effects of ageing temperature on SAC solder joint material behaviour and reliability,” 2008 58th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, Lake Buena Vista, FL, 2008, pp. 99-112., IEEE.
   Google Scholar
• IDC Technologies, www.idc-online.com, 2018.[ Online]. Available:http://www.idc online.com/technical_references/pdfs/mechanical_engineering/Failure_in_Solder_Joints.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Hwang J, Vargas R. Solder joint reliability—Can solder creep? Soldering Surf Mount Technol. 1990;2(2):38–45.
   Google Scholar
• Stolkarts, V., Moran, B. and Keer, L.M., 1998, May. Constitutive and damage model for solders. In 1998 Proceedings. 48th Electronic Components and Technology Conference (Cat. No. 98CH36206) (pp. 379-385), Seattle, United States. IEEE..
   Google Scholar
• Karayan, A. I., Castaneda, H., Ferdian, D., Harjanto, S., Nurjaya, D. M., & Ashari, A. (2012). Finite Element Analysis Applications in Failure Analysis: Case Studies. In F. Ebrahimi (Ed.), Finite Element Analysis – Applications in Mechanical Engineering. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech Open.
   Google Scholar
• Lee Y, Basaran C. A creep model for solder alloys. J Electron Packag. 2011 December;133(4):1–18.
   Google Scholar
• Lee -C-C, Ka K-S, Cheng R-S, et al. Reliability enhancements of chip-on-chip package with layout designs of microbumps. Elsevier. 2014 May 25;120:138–145.
   Google Scholar
• Weertman, J., 1957. Steady‐state creep through dislocation climb. Journal of Applied Physics, 28(3), pp.362-364.
   Google Scholar
• Herring C. Diffusional viscosity of a polycrystalline solid. J Appl Phys. 1950;21(5):437–445.
   Google Scholar
• Wong EH, Mai Y-W, Rajoo R, et al. Micro impact characterization of solder joint for drop impact application. in IEEE, San Diego, CA, USA, 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Lee -C-C, Chang K-C, Yang Y-W. Lead-free solder joint reliability estimation of flip chip package using FEM-based sensitivity analysis. Soldering Surf Mount Technol. 2009;21(1):31–41.
   Google Scholar
• Choudhury SF. Intermetallic compounds and their effects on the mechanical performance of micro scale solder bonds. Soud F. Choudhury, Connecticut, 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Gomez J, Basaran C. Damage mechanics constitutive model for Pb/Sn solder joints incorporating nonlinear kinematic hardening and rate dependent effects using a return mapping integration algorithm. Mech Mater. 2006 July;38(7):585–598.
   Google Scholar
• Basaran C, Ye H, Hopkins DC, et al. Failure modes of flip chip solder joints under high electric current density. J Electron Packag. 2004 September 15;127(2):157–163.
   Google Scholar
• Zhu Y, Li X, Wang C, et al. a new creep–fatigue life model of lead-free solder joint. Microelectron Reliab. 2015 June;55(7):1097–1100.
   Google Scholar
• Ramachandran V, Chiang K-N. Feasibility evaluation of creep model for failure assessment of solder joint reliability of wafer-level packaging. IEEE Trans Device Mater Reliab. 2017 December;17(4):672–677.
   Google Scholar
• Kashyap B, Murty G. Experimental constitutive relations for the high temperature deformation of a Pb-Sn eutectic alloy. Mat Sci Eng. 1981;50(2):205–213.
   Google Scholar
• Hacke PL, Sprecher AF, Conrad H. Modeling of the thermomechanical fatigue of 63Sn-37Pb alloy. Thermo-mechanical Fatigue Behavior of Materials. ASTM STP 1186, pp. 91–105, 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Anand L. Constitutive equations for hot working of metals. Int J Plast. 1985;1(3):213–231.
   Google Scholar
• Brown SB, Kim KH, Anand L. An internal variable constitutive model for hot working of metals. Int J Plast. 1989;5(2):95–130.
   Google Scholar
• Pan T. Thermal cycling induced plastic deformation in solder joints-part 11: accumulated deformation in through hole joint. IEEE Trans Compon Hybrids Manuf Technol. 1991 December;14(4):824–832.
   Google Scholar
• Shi XQ, Wang ZP, Yang QJ, et al. Creep behavior and deformation mechanism map of Sn-Pb eutectic solder alloy. J Eng Mater Technol. 2002 December 31;125(1):81–88.
   Google Scholar
• Motalab M, Cai Z, Suhling JC, et al., “Determination of anand constants for SAC solders using stress-strain or creep data,” in 13th IEEE Intersociety Conference on Thermal and Thermomechanical Phenomena in Electronic Systems (ITherm), Auburn, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Huang C, Yang D, Wu B, et al., “Failure mode of SAC305 lead-free solder joint under thermal stress. in 2012 International Conference on Electronic Packaging Technology & High Density Packaging, China, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Tay S, Haseeb a, Johan MR, et al. Influence of Ni nanoparticle on the morphology and growth of interfacial intermetallic compounds between Sne3.8Age0.7Cu lead-free solder and copper substrate. Intermetallics. 2013;8–15. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intermet.2012.09.016
   Google Scholar
• Zbrzezny a, Snugovsky a, Perovic D. Impact of board and component metallizations on microstructure and reliability of lead-free solder joints. Microelectron Reliab. 2007;12(12):2205–2214.
   Google Scholar
• Xing Y, Woods J, Cotts E. Understanding lead free solder damage: time dependence of SnAgCu microstructure and thermomechanical response. UIC Consortium Present. 2005;10:693–700.
   Google Scholar
• Şerban DA, Linul E, Nes CS, et al.. Numerical modelling of damage and failure of ductile materials in finite element analysis. Universităţii Petrol – Gaze din Ploieşti, pp. 11–20, 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Borst RD, Sluys LMH-BPJ. Fundamental issues in finite element analyses of localization of deformation engineering computations. Int J Comput-Aided Eng. 1993;10(2):99–121(23).
   Google Scholar
• Ortiz M, Leroy Y, Needleman a. a finite element method for localized failure analysis, computer methods in applied mechanics and engineering. J Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng. 1987 March;61(2):189–214.
   Google Scholar
• Che FX, Pang JHL. Study on board-level drop impact reliability of Sn–Ag–Cu solder joint by considering strain rate dependent properties of solder. IEEE Trans Device Mater Reliab. 2015;15(2):181–190.
   Google Scholar
• Petrone G, Cammarata, G. Modelling and Simulation. Croatia: I-Tech Education and Publishing; 2008. p. 391–417.
   Google Scholar