A comprehensive review on underwater welding: methods, property evaluations and challenges

References

• Sahoo A, Tripathy S. Development in plasma arc welding process: a review. Mater Today Proc. 2021;41:363–368.
   Google Scholar
• David SA, DebRoy T. Current issues and problems in welding science. Science. 1992;257(5069):497–502.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Padmanaban RV, Kishore VR, Balusamy V. Numerical simulation of temperature distribution and material flow during friction stir welding of dissimilar aluminium alloys. Procedia Eng. 2014;1(97):854–863.
   Google Scholar
• Reis RP, Souza D, Scotti A. Models to describe plasma jet, arc trajectory and arc blow formation in arc welding. Weld world. 2011;55(3):24–32.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Padmanaban R, Balusamy V, Vaira Vignesh R. Effect of friction stir welding process parameters on the tensile strength of dissimilar aluminum alloy AA2024‐T3 and AA7075‐T6 joints. Materwiss Werksttech. 2020;51(1):17–27.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abilash M, Padmanabham G, Padmanaban R, et al. The effect of welding direction in CO2 LASER-MIG hybrid welding of mild steel plates. InIop Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng. 2016;149(1):012031. DOI:10.1088/1757-899X/149/1/012031
   Google Scholar
• Ashidh K, Santha Kumari A, Sumesh A, et al. Influence of stick-slip effect on gas metal arc welding. Appl Mech Mater. 2015;813:438–445.
   Google Scholar
• Elleman AJ, Smith ND. A new type of primer for resistance welding trans. Inst Met Finish. 1954;31(1):351–366.
   Google Scholar
• Łabanowski J. Development of under-water welding techniques. Weld Int. 2011;25(12):933–937.
   Google Scholar
• Omajene JE, Martikainen J, Kah P, et al. Fundamental difficulties associated with underwater wet welding. Int J Eng Res Appl. 2014 Jun;4(6):26–31.
   Google Scholar
• Majumdar JD. Underwater welding-present status and future scope. J Nav Archit Mar Eng. 2006;3(1):38–47.
   Google Scholar
• Chhaniyara A. Underwater welding. Int J Mech Prod Eng Res Dev. 2014;4(1):81–90.
   Google Scholar
• Wang J, Sun Q, Jiang Y, et al. Analysis and improvement of underwater wet welding process stability with static mechanical constraint support. J Manuf Process. 2018;34:238–250.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo N, Du Y, Feng J, et al. Study of underwater wet welding stability using an X-ray transmission method. J Mater Process Technol. 2015;225:133–138.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verma K, Garg HK. Underwater welding-Recent trends and future scope. Int J Emerg Technol. 2012;3(2):115–120.
   Google Scholar
• Tomków J, Janeczek A, Rogalski G, et al. Underwater local cavity welding of S460N steel. Materials. 2020;13(23):5535. DOI:10.3390/ma13235535
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown RT, Masubuchi K. Fundamental research on underwater welding. Weld J. 1975;54(6):178s–188s.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adiban SV, Ramu M. Study on the effect of weld defects on fatigue life of structures. Mater Today Proc. 2018;5(9):17114–17124.
   Google Scholar
• Thekkuden DT, Santhakumari A, Sumesh A, et al. Instant detection of porosity in gas metal arc welding by using probability density distribution and control chart. Int J Adv Manuf Technol. 2018;95(9):4583–4606. DOI:10.1007/s00170-017-1484-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandra BR, Arul S, Sellamuthu R. Effect of electrode diameter and input current on gas tungsten arc welding heat distribution parameters. Procedia Mater Sci. 2014;5:2369–2375.
   Google Scholar
• Łabanowski J F, Fydrych D, Rogalski G. Underwater welding–a review. Adv Mater. 2008;8(3):11–22.
   Google Scholar
• Rowe M, Liu S. Recent developments in underwater wet welding. Sci Technol Weld Join. 2001;6(6):387–396.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fydrych D, Kozak T. Underwater welded joint properties investigation. Adv Mater Sci. 2009;9(4):4.
   Google Scholar
• Tsai CL, Ozaki H, Moore AP. Weld Res Counc Bull. 1977. Report No: MITSG 77-9. Index No: 77-309-Nvf. ( MITSG 77-9).
   Google Scholar
• Brown AJ, Brown RT, Tsai CL, et al. Report on fundamental research on underwater welding.1974.
   Google Scholar
• Masubuchi K. Review of underwater welding technology. InOceans 81. 1981;1:649–651.
   Google Scholar
• Vashishtha P, Wattal R, Pandey S, et al. Problems encountered in underwater welding and remedies-a review. Mater Today Proc. 2022;64:1433–1439.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Jia C, Zhao B, et al. Heat input and metal transfer influences on the weld geometry and microstructure during underwater wet FCAW. J Mater Process Technol. 2016;1(238):373–382.
   Google Scholar
• Gao W, Wang D, Cheng F, et al. Microstructural and mechanical performance of underwater wet welded S355 steel. J Mater Process Technol. 2016;1(238):333–340.
   Google Scholar
• Chen H, Guo N, Zhang X, et al. Effect of water flow on the microstructure, mechanical performance, and cracking susceptibility of underwater wet welded Q235 and E40 steel. J Mater Process Technol. 2020;277:116435.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verma RK, Khan MI. Underwater welding parameters-a review. Transformation. 2015;3(4):5.
   Google Scholar
• Sharma A, Arora N, Mishra BK. Statistical modeling of deposition rate in twin-wire submerged arc welding. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part B. 2009;223(7):851–863.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang LJ, Chandel RS, Bibby MJ. The effects of process variables on the bead width of submerged-arc weld deposits. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 1992;29(1–3):133–144.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar V Use of response surface modeling in prediction and control of flux consumption in submerged arc weld deposits. In Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science 2011, San Francisco, USA (Vol. 2).
   Google Scholar
• Bakrewal A, Fernandes AA, Jadhav K, et al. A recent progress in performance and property improvement in underwater welding.
   Google Scholar
• Shamsuddoha M, Islam MM, Aravinthan T, et al. Effectiveness of using fibre-reinforced polymer composites for underwater steel pipeline repairs. Compos Struct. 2013;1(100):40–54.
   Google Scholar
• de Rosa Oliveira F, Rodrigues Soares W, Queiroz Bracarense A. Study correlating the bubble phenomenon and electrical signals in underwater wet welding with covered electrodes. Weld Int. 2015;29(5):363–371.
   Google Scholar
• Oliveira FD, Soares WR, Bracarense AQ. Correlating study of bubble phenomenon and electrical signals in underwater wet welding with covered electrodes. Soldag Inspeção 2013;18(2):092–101.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang J, Sun Q, Zhang S, et al. Characterization of the underwater welding arc bubble through a visual sensing method. J Mater Process Technol. 2018;251:95–108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li HL, Liu D, Guo N, et al. The effect of alumino-thermic addition on underwater wet welding process stability. J Mater Process Technol. 2017;245:149–156.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang J, Sun Q, Pan Z, et al. Effects of welding speed on bubble dynamics and process stability in mechanical constraint-assisted underwater wet welding of steel sheets. J Mater Process Technol. 2019;264:389–401.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen H, Guo N, Huang L, et al. Effects of arc bubble behaviors and characteristics on droplet transfer in underwater wet welding using in-situ imaging method. Mater Des. 2019;170:107696.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang SK, Na SJ. A mechanism of spatter production from the viewpoint of the integral of specific current action. Weld J. 2005;84:12.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seo DW, Jeon YB, Lim JK. Effect of electric weld current on spatter reduction in spot welding process. Key Eng Mater. 2004;1623–1628. DOI:10.4028/scientific.net/KEM.261-263.1623
   Google Scholar
• Bunaziv I, Olden V, Akselsen OM. Metallurgical aspects in the welding of clad pipelines—a global outlook. Appl Sci. 2019;9(15):3118.
   Google Scholar
• Kang MJ, Kim Y, Ahn S, et al. Spatter rate estimation in the short circuit transfer region of GMAW. Weld J. 2003;82(9):238–247.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins NT, Eagar TW. Fume formation from spatter oxidation during arc welding. Sci Technol Weld Join. 2005;10(5):537–543.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baune E, Bonnet C, Liu S. Assessing metal transfer stability and spatter severity in flux cored arc welding. Sci Technol Weld Join. 2001;6(3):139–148.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molleda F, Mora J, Molleda JR, et al. The importance of spatter formed in shielded metal arc welding. Mater Charact. 2007;58(10):936–940. DOI:10.1016/j.matchar.2006.09.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lienert T, Siewert T, Babu S, et al. 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Kobayashi T, Sugiyama T. The effect of shielding gas composition on the characteristics of stainless steel weld metal. IIW Doc. 1982. XIZ-E-33–82. XII-B-25–82.
   Google Scholar
• Liao MT, Chen WJ. A comparison of gas metal arc welding with flux-cored wires and solid wires using shielding gas. Int J Adv Manuf Technol. 1999;15(1):49–53.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sato M, Suda K, Nagasaki H. How to weld using flux-cored wires. Weld Int. 1997;11(4):264–272.
   Google Scholar
• Zaruba LL. On spatter of CO2 welding. Auto Weld. 1974;8:46–51.
   Google Scholar
• Liu S, Olson DL, Ibarra S. Electrode formulation to reduce weld metal hydrogen and porosity. New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers; 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Ersoy U, Hu SJ, Kannatey-Asibu E. Observation of arc start instability and spatter generation in GMAW Weld. J NEW YORK. 2008;87(2):51.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heider A, Sollinger J, Abt F, et al. High-speed X-ray analysis of spatter formation in laser welding of copper. Phys Procedia. 2013;41:112–118.
   Google Scholar
• Guo N, Xu C, Guo W, et al. Characterization of spatter in underwater wet welding by X-ray transmission method. Mater Des. 2015;85:156–161.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Law DW, Nicholls P, Christodoulou C. Residual protection of steel following suspension of impressed current cathodic protection system on a wharf structure. Constr Build Mater. 2019;210:48–55.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aleksić V, Milović L, Blačić I, et al. Effect of LCF on behavior and microstructure of microalloyed HSLA steel and its simulated CGHAZ. Eng Fail Anal. 2019;104:1094–1106.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fydrych D, Labanowski J, Tomków J, et al. Cold cracking of underwater wet welded S355G10+ N high strength steel. Adv Mater Sci. 2015;15(3):48–56. DOI:10.1515/adms-2015-0015
   Google Scholar
• Tomków J, Fydrych D, Rogalski G, et al. Temper bead welding of S460N steel in wet welding conditions. Adv Mater Sci. 2018;18(3):5–14. DOI:10.1515/adms-2017-0036
   Google Scholar
• Górka J. Assessment of the weldability of T-welded joints in 10 mm thick TMCP steel using laser beam. Materials. 2018;11(7):1192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skowrońska B, Chmielewski T, Golański D, et al. Weldability of S700MC steel welded with the hybrid plasma+ MAG method. Manuf Rev. 2020;7:4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomków J, Janeczek A. Underwater in situ local heat treatment by additional stitches for improving the weldability of steel. Appl Sci. 2020;10(5):1823.
   Google Scholar
• Tomków J, Landowski M, Fydrych D, et al. Underwater wet welding of S1300 ultra-high strength steel. Mar Struct. 2022;J;1(81):103120.
   Google Scholar
• Schaupp T, Rhode M, Yahyaoui H, et al. Hydrogen-assisted cracking in GMA welding of high-strength structural steels using the modified spray arc process. Weld world. 2020;64(12):1997–2009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai CL, Masubuchi K. Mechanisms of rapid cooling in underwater welding. Appl Ocean Res. 1979;1(2):99–110.
   Google Scholar
• Tsai CL, Masubuchi K. Mechanisms of rapid cooling and their design considerations in underwater welding. J Pet Technol. 1980;32(10):1–825.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang HT, Dai XY, Feng JC, et al. Preliminary investigation on real-time induction heating-assisted underwater wet welding. Weld J. 2015;1:8–15.
   Google Scholar
• Szelagowski P, Ibarra S, Ohliger A, et al. In-situ post-weld heat treatment of wet welds. Proc Annu Offshore Technol Conf. 1992;301–308.
   Google Scholar
• Karlsson L, Keehan E, Andren HO, et al. Development of high strength steel weld metals–. proceedings. Eurojoin. 2004;5:13–14.
   Google Scholar
• Wang W, Liu S. Alloying and microstructural management in developing SMAW electrodes for HSLA-100 steel. Weld J New York. 2002;81(7):132–S.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koo JY, Luton MJ, Bangaru NV, et al. Metallurgical design of ultra high-strength steels for gas pipelines. Int J Offshore Polar Eng. 2004;14(01):002.
   Google Scholar
• Lord M. Interpass temperature and the welding of strong steels. Weld World. 1998;41(5):452–459.
   Google Scholar
• Keehan E, Zachrisson J, Karlsson L. Influence of cooling rate on microstructure and properties of high strength steel weld metal. Sci Technol Weld Join. 2010;15(3):233–238.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomków J, Rogalski G, Fydrych D, et al. Improvement of S355G10+ N steel weldability in water environment by temper bead welding. J Mater Process Technol. 2018;262:372–381.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen H, Guo N, Shi X, et al. Effect of hydrostatic pressure on protective bubble characteristic and weld quality in underwater flux-cored wire wet welding. J Mater Process Technol. 2018;259:159–168.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen H, Guo N, Shi X, et al. Effect of water flow on the arc stability and metal transfer in underwater flux-cored wet welding. J Manuf Processes. 2018;1(31):103–115.
   Google Scholar
• Zhao B, Chen J, Jia C, et al. Numerical analysis of molten pool behavior during underwater wet FCAW process. J Manuf Processes. 2018;32:538–552.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yurioka N, Horii Y. Recent developments in repair welding technologies in Japan. Sci Technol Weld Join. 2006;11(3):255–264.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo N, Liu D, Guo W, et al. Effect of Ni on microstructure and mechanical properties of underwater wet welding joint. Mater Des. 2015;77:25–31.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun QJ, Cheng WQ, Liu YB, et al. Microstructure and mechanical properties of ultrasonic assisted underwater wet welding joints. Mater Des. 2016;103:63–70.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang J, Sun Q, Wu L, et al. Effect of ultrasonic vibration on microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of underwater wet welding joint. J Mater Process Technol. 2017;246:185–197.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pessoa EC, Bracarense AQ, Zica EM, et al. Porosity variation along multipass underwater wet welds and its influence on mechanical properties. J Mater Process Technol. 2006;179(1–3):239–243. DOI:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2006.03.071
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West TC, Mitchell G, Lindberg E Wet welding electrode evaluation for ship repair.1990.
   Google Scholar
• Sanchez-Osio A, Liu S, Olson DL, et al. Designing shielded metal arc consumables for underwater wet welding in offshore applications. J Offshore Mech Arct Eng. 1995;117(3):212–220. DOI:10.1115/1.2827092
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malakondaiah G, Srinivas M, Rao PR. Ultrahigh-strength low-alloy steels with enhanced fracture toughness. Prog Mater Sci. 1997;42(1–4):209–242.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eghbali B, Abdollah-Zadeh A. Deformation-induced ferrite transformation in a low carbon Nb–Ti microalloyed steel. Mater Des. 2007;28(3):1021–1026.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keehan E, Andrén HO, Karlsson L, et al. Microstructural and mechanical effects of nickel and manganese on high strength steel weld metals. Trends Weld Res. 2002;695–700.
   Google Scholar
• Fydrych D, Łabanowski J, Rogalski G. Weldability of high strength steels in wet welding conditions. Pol Marit Res. 2013;20(2 (78)):67–73.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowe MD, Liu S, Reynolds TJ. The effect of ferro-alloy additions and depth on the quality of underwater wet welds. Weld J New York. 2002;81(8):156-S-166–s.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pessoa EC, Liu S. The state of the art of underwater wet welding practice: part 2. Weld J. 2021;100(5):171–182.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santos VR, Monteiro MJ, Rizzo FC, et al. Development of an oxyrutile electrode for wet welding. Weld J. 2012;91(12):319–328.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cui L, Yang X, Wang D, et al. Experimental study of friction taper plug welding for low alloy structure steel: welding process, defects, microstructures and mechanical properties. Mater Des. 2014;62:271–281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ibarra S, Grubbs EC, Olson DL. Metallurgical aspect of underwater welding. JOM. 1988;40(12):8–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu D, Guo N, Xu C, et al. Effects of Mo, Ti and B on microstructure and mechanical properties of underwater wet welding joints. J Mater Eng Perform. 2017;26(5):2350–2358.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ersoy E. Recent trends and development of underwater welding. Int j eng res appl. 2020;4(1):36–44.
   Google Scholar
• Anand A, Khajuria A. Welding processes in marine application: a review. Int J Mech Eng Robot Res. 2015;2(1):215–225.
   Google Scholar
• Lv XM, Liu YF, Gao HB, et al. Design of underwater welding robot used in nuclear plant Key Eng Mater. 2014;620:484–489. DOI:10.4028/scientific.net/KEM.620.484
   Google Scholar
• Surojo E, Putri ED, Budiana EP. Recent developments on underwater welding of metallic material. Procedia Struct Integr. 2020;27:14–21.
   Google Scholar
• Barnabas SG, Rajakarunakaran S, Pandian GS, et al. Review on enhancement techniques necessary for the improvement of underwater welding. Mater Today Proc. 2021;45:1191–1195.
   Google Scholar
• Fydrych D, Świerczyńska A, Rogalski G. Effect of underwater wet welding conditions on the diffusible hydrogen content in deposited metal. Methods. 2015;11(12):47–52.
   Google Scholar
• Klett J, Hecht-Linowitzki V, Grünzel O, et al. Effect of the water depth on the hydrogen content in SMAW wet welded joints. SN Appl Sci. 2020;2(7):1–14. DOI:10.1007/s42452-020-3066-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar