Weakening the ideological immune system: can debiasing techniques reduce confirmation bias?

References

• Adams, J. M., Hart, H., Richardson, K., Tortoriello, G. K., & Rentschler, A. (2018). Monkey see, monkey do: The effect of social influence on selective-exposure bias. European Journal of Social Psychology, 48(6), 850–865. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2375
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adams, J. S. (1961). Reduction of cognitive dissonance by seeking consonant information. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 74–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0047029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albarracín, D., & Mitchell, A. L. (2004). The role of defensive confidence in preference for proattitudinal information: How believing that one is strong can sometimes be a defensive weakness. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(12), 1565–1584. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271180
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alfano, M., Iurino, K., Stey, P., Robinson, B., Christen, M., Yu, F., Lapsley, D., & Tractenberg, R. E. (2017). Development and validation of a multi-dimensional measure of intellectual humility. Plos One, 12(8), e0182950. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182950
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, C. A., Lepper, M. R., & Ross, L. (1980). Perseverance of social theories: The role of explanation in the persistence of discredited information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1037–1049. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0077720
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, C. A. (1982). Inoculation and counter-explanation: Debiasing techniques in the perseverance of social theories. Social Cognition, 1(2), 126–139. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.1982.1.2.126
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, C. A., & Sechler, E. S. (1986). Effects of explanation and counterexplanation on the development and use of social theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(50), 24–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.1.24
   Google Scholar
• Arkes, H. R. (1991). Costs and benefits of judgment errors: Implications for debiasing. Psychological Bulletin, 110(3), 486–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.110.3.486
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arkes, H. (1981). Impediments to accurate clinical judgment and possible ways to minimize their impact. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, 323–330. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.49.3.323
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aronson, E. (1969). The theory of cognitive dissonance: A current perspective. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 4, 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60075-1
   Google Scholar
• Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2013). Social Psychology. Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Baron, J. (1995). Myside bias in thinking about abortion. Thinking & Reasoning, 1, 221–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546789508256909
   Google Scholar
• Baron, J. (2008). Thinking and deciding (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Baron, J. (1991). Beliefs about thinking. In J. F. Voss, D. N. Perkins, & J. W. Segal (Eds.), Informal Reasoning and Education (pp. 169–186). Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Borgesius, F. Z., Trilling, D., Moeller, J., Bodó, B., de Vreese, C. H., & Helberger, N. (2016). Should we worry about filter bubbles? Internet Policy Review, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.14763/2016.1.401
   Google Scholar
• Brock, T. C. (1965). Commitment to exposure as a determinant of information receptivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2, 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022082
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brodbeck, M. (1956). The role of small groups in mediating the effects of propaganda. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 52, 166–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0042654
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchanan, E. M., & Scofield, J. E. (2018). Methods to detect low quality data and its implication for psychological research. Behavior Research Methods, 50(6), 2586–2596. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-018-1035-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne, D., Williams, K. D., Burger, J. M., Harkins, S. G., & Williams, K. D. (2017). The echo chamber. In S. G. Harkins & J. M. Burger (Eds.), The oxford handbook of social influence (pp. 457–460). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, D. T. (1986). Relabeling internal and external validity for applied social sciences. In W. M. K. Trochim (Ed.), Advances in quasi-experimental design and analysis. New directions for program evaluation (pp. 67–77). Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Canon, L. K. (1964). Self-confidence and selective exposure to information. In L. Festinger (Ed.), Conflict, decision, and dissonance (pp. 83–96). Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cartwright, D. (1949). Some principles of mass persuasion: Selected findings of research on the sale of United States war bonds. Human Relations, 2, 253–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872674900200303
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaiken, S., Liberman, A., & Eagly, A. H. (1989). Heuristic and systematic information processing within and beyond the persuasion context. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended Thought (pp. 212–252). Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, A. R., Brehm, J. W., & Latané, B. (1959). Choice of strategy and voluntary exposure to information under public and private conditions. Journal of Personality, 27, 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1959.tb01818.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coulson, A. (2004). Education and indoctrination in the Muslim world. Is there a problem? what can we do about it? CATO Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Croskerry, P. (2018). The need for cognition and the curse of cognition. Diagnosis, 5, 91–94. https://doi.org/10.1515/dx-2018-0072
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dardenne, B., & Levens, J. (1995). Confirmation bias as a social skill. Personality and Social Psychology, 21(11), 1229–1239. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672952111011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dylko, I., Dolgov, I., Hoffman, W., Eckhart, N., Molina, M., & Aaziz, O. (2017). The dark side of technology: An experimental investigation of the influence of customizability on online political selective exposure. Computers in Human Behavior, 73, 181–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.031
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, J., Newstead, E., Allen, J., & Pollard, P. (1994). Debiasing by instruction: The case of belief bias. The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 6, 263–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541449408520148
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feather, N. T. (1962). Cigarette smoking and lung cancer: A study of cognitive dissonance. Australian Journal of Psychology, 14, 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049536208255449
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feather, N. T. (1963). Cognitive dissonance, sensitivity, and evaluation. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 157–163. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0049383
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feloni, R., & Shibu, S. (2019, December 5). Here’s the presentation Google gives employees on how to spot unconscious bias at work. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com/google-unconscious-bias-training-presentation-2015-12.
   Google Scholar
• Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2013). Social cognition: From brains to culture. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Flaxman, S., Goel, S., & Rao, J. M. (2016). Filter bubbles, echo chambers, and online news consumption. Public Opinion Quarterly, 80, 298–320. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfw006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freedman, J. L. (1965). Confidence, utility, and selective exposure: A partial replication. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 196(2), 778–780. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022670
   Google Scholar
• Freedman, J. L., & Sears, D. O. (1963). Voters’ preferences among types of information. The American Psychologist, 18(7), 375.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freedman, J. L., & Sears, D. O. (1965). Selective exposure. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 2, 57–97.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frey, D. (1986). Recent research on selective exposure to information. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 41–80.
   Google Scholar
• Frimer, J. A., Skitka, L. J., & Motyl, M. (2017). Liberals and conservatives are similarly motivated to avoid exposure to one another’s opinions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 72, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.04.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galinsky, A., & Moskowitz, G. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 708–724. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.708
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galinsky, A. D., & Ku, G. (2004). The effects of perspective-taking on prejudice: The moderating role of self-evaluation. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 594–604. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203262802
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garb, H. (1998). Studying the clinician: Judgment research and psychological assessment. American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Gigerenzer, G., & Selten, R. (Eds.). (2002). Bounded rationality: The adaptive toolbox. MIT press.
   Google Scholar
• Griffith, R. L. (2019). Forensic confirmation bias: Is consider-the-opposite an effective debiasing strategy? Unpublished master’s thesis.Washburn University,
   Google Scholar
• Hart, W., Albarracín, D., Eagly, A. H., Brechan, I., Lindberg, M. J., & Merrill, L. (2009). Feeling validated versus being correct: A meta-analysis of selective exposure to information. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 555–588. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015701
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart, W., Richardson, K., Tortoriello, G. K., & Earl, A. (2020). ‘You are what you read: ’Is selective exposure a way people tell us who they are? British Journal of Psychology, 111(3), 417–442. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12414
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hergovich, A., Schott, R., & Burger, C. (2010). Biased evaluation of abstracts depending on topic and conclusion: Further evidence of a confirmation bias within scientific psychology. Current Psychology, 29, 118–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-010-9087-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirt, E. R., & Markman, K. D. (1995). Multiple explanation: A consider-an-alternative strategy for debiasing judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(6), 1069–1086.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoch, S. J. (1985). Counterfactual reasoning and accuracy in predicting personal events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 719–731. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.11.1-4.719
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ioannidis, J. (2008). Why most discovered true associations are inflated. Epidemiology, 19, 640–648. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e31818131e7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jecker, J. (1964). Selective exposure to new informationConflict, Decision and Dissonance. L. Festinger. Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins, M. M., & Youngstrom, E. A. (2016). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive debiasing improves assessment and treatment selection for pediatric bipolar disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 84, 323–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000070
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahan, D. M., Braman, D., Cohen, G. L., Gastil, J., & Slovic, P. (2010). Who fears the HPV vaccine, who doesn’t, and why? An experimental study of the mechanisms of cultural cognition. Law and Human Behavior, 34, 501–516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-009-9201-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kida, T. (2006). Don’t believe everything you think: The 6 basic mistakes we make in thinking. Prometheus Books.
   Google Scholar
• Klayman, J. (1995). Varieties of confirmation bias. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 32, 385–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60315-1
   Google Scholar
• Knobloch-Westerwick, S., & Hastall, M. R. (2010). Please yourself: Social identity effects on selective exposure to news about in- and out-groups. Journal of Communication, 60, 515–535. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2010.01495.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knobloch-Westerwick, S., Johnson, B. K., & Westerwick, A. (2015). Confirmation bias in online searches: Impacts of selective exposure before an election on political attitude strength and shifts. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 20, 171–187. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12105
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knobloch-Westerwick, S., & Meng, J. (2009). Looking the other way: Selective exposure to attitude-consistent and counterattitudinal political information. Communication Research, 36, 426–448. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650209333030
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knobloch‐westerwick, S., & Meng, J. (2011). Reinforcement of the political self through selective exposure to political messages. Journal of Communication, 61, 349–368. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01543.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koehler, J. (1993). The influence of prior beliefs on scientific judgments of evidence quality. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 56, 28–55. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1993.1044
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koriat, A., Lichtenstein, S., & Fischoff, B. (1980). Reasons for confidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6(2), 107–118. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.6.2.107
   Google Scholar
• Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 480–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurtz, R., & Garfield, S. (1978). Illusory correlation: A further exploration of Chapman’s paradigm. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46(5), 1009–1015. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.46.5.1009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarsfeld, P. F., Berelson, B., & Gaudet, H. (1948). The people’s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leary, M. R., Diebels, K. J., Davisson, E. K., Jongman-Sereno, K. P., Isherwood, J. C., Raimi, K. T., Deffler, S. A., & Hoyle, R. H. (2017). Cognitive and interpersonal features of intellectual humility. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 43(6), 793–813. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217697695
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehman, D. R., Lempert, R. O., & Nisbett, R. E. (1988). The effects of graduate training on reasoning: Formal discipline and thinking about everyday-life events. The American Psychologist, 43, 431–442. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.43.6.431
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehman, D. R., & Nisbett, R. E. (1990). A longitudinal study of the effects of undergraduate training on reasoning. Developmental Psychology, 26, 952–960. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.26.6.952
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerner, M. (2018). Nurturing a new diversity on campus: ‘Diversity of thought.’ Star Tribune. Retrieved from https://www.startribune.com/nurturing-a-new-diversity-on-u-campus-diversity-of-thought-to-bridge-political-differences/480416263/
   Google Scholar
• Lilienfeld, S. O., Ammirati, R., & Landfield, K. (2009). Giving debiasing away can psychological research on correcting cognitive errors promote human welfare? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(4), 390–398. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01144.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lilienfeld, S. O. (2008). Can psychology save the world? British Psychological Society Research Digest. Retrieved from http://bps-researchdigest.blogspot.com/2007/09/can-psychology-save-world.html
   Google Scholar
• Lin, M., Lake, V. E., & Rice, D. (2008). Teaching anti-bias curriculum in teacher education programs: What and how. Teacher Education Quarterly, 35(2), 187–200.
   Google Scholar
• Lord, C. G., Lepper, M. R., & Preston, E. (1984). Considering the opposite: A corrective strategy for social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1231–1243. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.47.6.1231
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lord, C. G., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1979). Biased assimilation and attitude polarization: The effects of prior theories on subsequently considered evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 2098–2109. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.11.2098
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLean, C. L., Brimacombe, C. E., & Lindsay, D. S. (2013). Investigating industrial investigation: Examining the impact of a priori knowledge and tunnel vision education. Law and Human Behavior, 37(6), 441–453. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000056
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahoney, M. (1977). Publication prejudices: An experimental study of confirmatory bias in the peer review system. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1, 161–175. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01173636
   Google Scholar
• Maynes, J. (2015). Critical thinking and cognitive bias. Informal Logic, 35, 183–203. https://doi.org/10.22329/il.v35i2.4187
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meffert, M. F., Chung, S., Joiner, A. J., Waks, L., & Garst, J. (2006). The effects of negativity and motivated information processing during a political campaign. Journal of Communication, 56, 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00003.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melican, D. B., & Dixon, T. L. (2008). News on the net: Credibility, selective exposure, and racial prejudice. Communication Research, 35, 151–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650207313157
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, A. G., McHoskey, J. W., Bane, C. M., & Dowd, T. G. (1993). The attitude polarization phenomenon: Role of response measure, attitude extremity, and behavioral consequences of reported attitude change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 561–574. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.4.561
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mills, J. (1965). Avoidance of dissonant information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2, 589–593. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022523
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mills, J., Aronson, E., & Robinson, H. (1959). Selectivity in exposure to information. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 250–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0042162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mills, J., & Ross, A. (1964). Effects of commitment and certainty upon interest in supporting information. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68(5), 552–555. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043278
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montgomery, J., Nyhan, B., & Torres, M. (2018). How conditioning on posttreatment variables can ruin your experiment and what to do about it. American Journal of Political Science, 62, 760–775. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12357
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mussweiler, T., Strack, F., & Pfeiffer, T. (2000). Overcoming the inevitable anchoring effect: Considering the opposite compensates for selective accessibility. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(9), 1142–1150. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672002611010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mynatt, C., Doherty, M., & Tweney, R. (1977). Confirmation bias in a simulated research environment: An experimental study of scientific inference. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29(1), 85–95.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newstead, S., Pollard, P., Evans, J., & Allen, J. (1992). The source of belief bias in syllogistic reasoning. Cognition, 45(3), 257–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(92)90019-E
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2, 175–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175
   Google Scholar
• Nisbett, R. E., Fong, G. L., Lehman, D. R., & Cheng, P. W. (1987). Teaching reasoning. Science, 238(4827), 625–631. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3672116
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oppenheimer, D. M., Meyvis, T., & Nicolas, D. (2009). Instructional manipulation checks: Detecting satisficing to increase statistical power. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 867–872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkins, D. N., Allen, R., & Hafner, J. (1983). Difficulties in everyday reasoning. In W. Maxwell (Ed.), Thinking: The frontier expands (pp. 177–190). Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. W. W. Norton & Co.
   Google Scholar
• Richard, F. D., Bond, C. F., Jr., & Stokes-Zoota, J. J. (2003). One hundred years of social psychology quantitatively described. Review of General Psychology, 7, 331. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.7.4.331
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson, J. D., Huddy, W. P., & Morgan, S. M. (2008). The hostile media effect, biased assimilation, and perceptions of a presidential debate. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38, 1255–1270. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00347.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosen, S. (1961). Postdecision affinity for incompatible information. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(1), 188–190. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046311
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanna, L. J., Schwarz, N., & Stocker, S. L. (2002). When debiasing backfires: Accessible content and accessibility experiences in debiasing hindsight. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 497–502. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.497
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schieferdecker, D., & Wessler, H. (2017). Bridging segregation via media exposure? Ingroup identification, outgroup distance, and low direct contact reduce outgroup appearance in media repertoires. Journal of Communication, 67(6), 993–1014. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12338
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarz, N., Bless, H., Strack, F., Klumpp, G., Rittenauer-Schatka, H., & Simons, A. (1991). Ease of retrieval as information: Another look at the availability heuristic. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 195–202. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.195
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sears, D. O. (1966). Opinion formation and information preferences in an adversary situation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2, 130–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(66)90074-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sears, D. O., & Freedman, J. L. (1965). Effects of expected familiarity with arguments upon opinion change and selective exposure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 12(3), 420–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022380
   Google Scholar
• Sears, D. O. (1965). Biased indoctrination and selectivity of exposure to new information. Sociometry, 28(4), 363–376.
   Google Scholar
• Sellier, A., Scopelliti, I., & Morewedge, C. K. (2019). Debiasing training improves decision making in the field. Psychological Science, 30, 1371–1379. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619861429
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons, D. J., Shoda, Y., & Lindsay, D. S. (2017). Constraints on generality (COG): A proposed addition to all empirical papers. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12, 1123–1128. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617708630
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sleek, S. (2018). The bias beneath: Two decades of measuring implicit associations. APS Observer, 31(2), 11–14.
   Google Scholar
• Staub, E. (1989). The roots of evil: The origins of genocide and other group violence. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 261–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60229-4
   Google Scholar
• Stanovich, K. E. (2018). Miserliness in human cognition: The interaction of detection, override and mindware. Thinking & Reasoning, 24(4), 423–444.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taber, C., & Lodge, M. (2006). Motivated skepticism in the evaluation of political beliefs. American Journal of Political Science, 50, 755–769. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00214.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tavris, C., & Aronson, E. (2007). Mistakes were made (but not by me): Why we justify foolish beliefs, bad decisions, and hurtful acts. Harcourt.
   Google Scholar
• Tierney, J. (2004). A nation divided? Who says? Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/13/weekinreview/13tier.html
   Google Scholar
• Trilling, D., van Klingeren, M., & Tsfati, Y. (2017). Selective exposure, political polarization, and possible mediators: Evidence from the Netherlands. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 29, 189–213. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edw003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tweney, R. D., Doherty, M. E., Worner, W. J., Pliske, D. B., Mynatt, C. R., Gross, K. A., & Arkkelin, D. L. (1980). Strategies of rule discovery in an inference task. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 109–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335558008248237
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westerwick, A., Johnson, B. K., & Knobloch-Westerwick, S. (2017). Confirmation biases in selective exposure to political online information: Source bias vs. content bias. Communication Monographs, 84, 343–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2016.1272761
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willingham, D. T. (2008). Critical thinking: Why is it so hard to teach? Arts Education Policy Review, 109(4), 21–32. https://doi.org/10.3200/AEPR.109.4.21-32
   Google Scholar
• Zorowitz, S., Niv, Y., & Bennett, D. (2022). Inattentive responding can induce spurious associations between task behavior and symptom measures. PsyArxiv.
   Google Scholar