182
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Control, Resistance, and Empowerment in Raced, Gendered, and Classed Work Contexts: The Case of African American Women

Pages 257-291 | Published online: 18 May 2016

References

  • Acker, J. (1991). Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organizations. In J. Lorber & S. A. Farrell (Eds.), The social construction of gender (pp. 162–179). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
  • Allen, A. (1994). On being a role model. In D. T. Goldberg (Ed.), Multiculturalism: A critical reader (pp. 180–199). Cambridge, UK: Blackwell.
  • Allen, B. J. (1995). “Diversity” and organizational communication. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 3, 143–155.
  • Allen, B. J. (1996). Feminist standpoint theory: A Black woman’s (re)view of organizational socialization. Communication Studies, 47(4), 257–271.
  • Allen, B. J. (1998). Black womanhood and feminist standpoints. Management Communication Quarterly, 11, 575–586.
  • Allen, B. J. (2000). “Learning the ropes”: A Black feminist standpoint analysis. In P. M. Buzzanell (Ed.), Rethinking organizational and managerial communication from feminist perspectives (pp. 177–208). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Amott, T., & Matthaei, J. (Eds). (1996). Race, gender and work: A multicultural economic history of women in the United States (2nd ed.). Boston: South End Press.
  • Arnold, R. (1994). Black women in prison: The price of resistance. In M. Baca Zinn & B. T. Dill (Eds.), Women of color in U.S. society (pp. 171–184). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
  • Barnes, A. (2000). Everyday racism: A book for all Americans. Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks.
  • Bascom, L. (1987, April/May). Breaking through middle management barrier. Crisis, pp. 13–16, 61, 64.
  • Bell, E. L. (1990). The bicultural life experience of career-oriented Black women. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 459–477.
  • Bell, E. L., & Nkomo, S. (1992). The glass ceiling vs. the concrete wall: Career perceptions of White and African-American women managers (Working Paper No. 3470–92). Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
  • Bell, E. L., & Nkomo, S. (2001). Our separate ways: Black and White women and the struggle for professional identity. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
  • Benokraitis, N. V. (Ed.). (1997). Subtle sexism: Current practice and prospects for change. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Bhavnani, K., & Phoenix, A. (Eds.). (1994). Shifting identities, shifting racisms: A feminism & psychology reader. London: Sage.
  • Binion, V. (1990). Psychological androgyny: A Black female perspective. Sex Roles, 22, 487–507.
  • Blair, I. V., Judd, C. M., Sadler, M. S., & Jenkins, C. (2002). The role of Afrocentric features in person perception: Judging by features and categories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 5–25.
  • Blake, S. (1999). At the crossroads of race and gender: Lessons from the mentoring experiences of professional Black women. In A. Murrell & F. Crosby (Eds.), Mentoring dilemmas: Developmental relationships within multicultural organizations (pp. 83–104). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
  • Blau, F., & Beller, A. (1992). Black-White earnings over the 1970s and 1980s: Gender differences in trends. Review of Economics and Statistics, 7(2), 276–86.
  • Browne, I. (1999a). Introduction: Latinas and African American women in the U.S. labor market. In I. Browne (Ed.), Latinas and African American women at work: Race, gender and economic inequality (pp. 1–31). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
  • Browne, I. (Ed.). (1999b). Latinas and African American women at work: Race, gender, and economic inequality. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
  • Browne, I., & Kennelly, I. (1999). Stereotypes and realities: Images of Black women in the labor market. In I. Browne (Ed.), Latinas and African American women at work: Race, gender, and economic inequality (pp. 302–326). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
  • Bullis, C. (1993). At least it’s a start. In S. Deetz (Ed.), Communication yearbook 16 (pp. 144–154). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
  • Bullis, C., & Stout, K. R. (2000). Organizational socialization: A feminist standpoint approach. In P. Buzzanell (Ed.), Rethinking organizational & managerial communication from feminist perspectives (pp. 47–75). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Buzzanell, P. M. (1994). Gaining a voice: Feminist perspectives in organizational communication. Management Communication Quarterly, 7, 339–383.
  • Buzzanell, P. M. (Ed.). (2000). Rethinking organizational & managerial communication from feminist perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Byrd, A., & Tharps, L. (2001). Hair story: Untangling the roots of Black hair in America. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
  • Bystydzienski, J. M. (1992). Women transforming politics: Worldwide strategies for empowerment. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Calabrese, R. L., & Underwood, E. (1994). The effects of school-generated racism on students of color. High School Journal, 415, 267–273.
  • Calas, M. B., & Smircich, L. (1996). From the “woman’s” point of view: Feminist approaches to organization studies. In S. Clegg, C. Hardy, & W. R. Nord (Eds.), Handbook of organization studies (pp. 218–257). London: Sage.
  • Catalyst (1998). Women of color in corporate management: A statistical picture. New York: Catalyst.
  • Cheever, B. (2001). Selling Ben Cheever: Back to square one in a service economy. New York: Bloomsbury.
  • Cheney, G., Lair, D., & Gill, R. (2002). Trends at work at the turn of the 21st century: Implications for organizational communication. Management Communication Quarterly, 15, 632–641.
  • Cohn, J. (1997). The effects of racial and ethnic discrimination on the career development of minority persons. In H. Farmer (Ed.), Diversity and women’s career development (pp. 161–171). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Collins, P. H. (1986). Learning from the outsider within: The sociological significance of Black feminist thought. Social Problems, 33(6), 14–32.
  • Collins, P. H. (1989, May). Toward a new vision: Race, class, and gender as categories of analysis and connection. Paper presented at Integrating Race and Gender Into the College Curriculum, a workshop conducted at the Center for Research on Women, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN.
  • Collins, P. H. (1990). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York: Routledge.
  • Collins, P. H. (1998a). Fighting words: Black women and the search for justice. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
  • Collins, P. H. (1998b). It’s all in the family: Intersections of gender, race, and nation. Hypatia, 13, 62–82.
  • Collins, S. M. (1989). The marginalization of Black executives. Social Problems, 36, 317–331.
  • Cooper, A. J. (1892). A voice from the South. Xenia, OH: Aldine.
  • Corcoran, M., & Parrott, S. (1992). Black women’s economic progress. Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
  • Deetz, S. (1982). Critical interpretive research in organizational communication. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 46, 131–149.
  • Dugger, K. (1991). Social location and gender role attitudes: A comparison of Black and White women. In B. Lorber & S. Farrell (Eds.), The social construction of gender (pp. 38–55). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
  • Duke, L. (2002). Get real!: Cultural relevance and resistance to the mediated feminine ideal. Psychology & Marketing, 19(2), 211–233.
  • Dumas, R. G. (1980). Dilemmas of Black females in leadership. In L. Rogers-Rose (Ed.), The Black woman (pp. 203–215). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
  • Ehrenreich, B. (2001). Nickel and dimed: On (not) getting by in America. New York: Holt.
  • Essed, P. (1991). Understanding everyday racism. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
  • Essed, P. (1994). Contradictory positions, ambivalent perceptions: A case study of a Black woman entrepreneur. In K. Bhavnani & A. Phoenix (Eds.), Shifting identities, shifting racisms: A feminism & psychology reader (pp. 99–118). London: Sage.
  • Etter-Lewis, G. (1993). My soul is my own: Oral narratives of African American women in the professions. New York: Routledge.
  • Excerpts from tapes in discrimination lawsuit. (1996, November 4). New York Times, p. D4.
  • Farmer, H. S. (Ed.). (1997). Diversity and women’s career development: From adolescence to adulthood. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Feagin, J. R., & Sikes, M. P. (1994). Living with racism: The Black middle-class experience. Boston: Beacon Press.
  • Ferguson, K. (1984). The feminist case against bureaucracy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
  • Fine, M. G. (1995). Building successful multicultural organizations. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
  • Fine, M. (1994). Working the hyphens: Reinventing self and other in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 70–82). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Fine, M., & Weis, L. (1998). The unknown city: The lives of poor and working-class young adults. Boston: Beacon.
  • Fordham, S. (1993). “Those loud Black girls”: Black women, silence, and gender, “passing” in the academy. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 24, 3–32.
  • Fordham, S. (1996). Blacked out: Dilemmas of race, identity, and success at Capital High. Chicago: University Press of Chicago.
  • Foucault, M. (1979). Discipline and punish: Birth of the prison (A. Sheridan, Trans.). New York: Vintage.
  • Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge. New York: Pantheon.
  • Frankenberg, R. (1993). White women, race matters: The social construction of whiteness. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.
  • Fulbright, K. (1986). The myth of the double-advantage: Black female managers. In M. Simms & J. Malveaux (Eds.), Slipping through the cracks: The status of Black women (pp. 33–46). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
  • Gilkes, C. T. (1980). Holding back the ocean with a broom: Black women and community work. In L. Rogers-Rose (Ed.), The Black woman, (pp. 217–232). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
  • Gilkes, C. T. (1983). Going up for the oppressed: The career mobility of Black women community workers. Journal of Social Issues, 39, 115–139.
  • Gittell, M., Ortega-Bustamante, I., & Steffy, T. (1999). Women creating social capital and social change: A study of women-led community development organizations. New York: Howard Samuels State Management and Policy Center, Graduate School and University Center, City University of New York.
  • Grimes, D. S. (2002). Challenging the status quo? Whiteness in the diversity management literature. Management Communication Quarterly, 15, 381–409.
  • Guinier, L., & Torres, G. (2002). The miner’s canary: Enlisting race, resisting power, transforming democracy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Harley, S. (1997). Speaking up: The politics of Black women’s labor history. In E. Higginbotham & M. Romero (Eds.), Women and work: Exploring race, ethnicity, and class (pp. 28–51). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Hecht, M. L. (Ed.). (1998). Communicating prejudice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Higginbotham, E. (1987). Employment for Black professional women in the twentieth century. In C. Bose & G. Spitze (Eds.), Ingredients for women’s employment policy (73–91). Albany: State University of New York Press.
  • Higginbotham, E. (1997). Black professional women: Job ceilings and employment sectors. In D. Dunn (Ed.), Workplace/women’s place: An anthology (pp. 234–246). Los Angeles: Roxbury.
  • Higginbotham, E., & Weber, L. (1997). Perceptions of workplace discrimination among Black and White professional-managerial women. In I. Browne (Ed.), Latinas and African American women at work: Race, gender, and economic inequality (pp. 327–353). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
  • Hill, S. E., Bahniuk, M. H., & Dobos, J. (1989). The impact of mentoring and collegial support on faculty success: An analysis of support behavior, information adequacy, and communication apprehension. Communication Education, 38, 15–33.
  • Hine, D. C., & Thompson, K. (1998). A shining thread of hope: The history of Black women in America. New York: Broadway Books.
  • Holcomb-McCoy, C. C., & Moore-Thomas, C. (2001, October). Empowering African-American adolescent females. Professional School Counseling, 5, 19–27.
  • Holzer, H. J. (1996). What employers want: Job prospects for less-educated workers. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
  • Hooks, b. (1981). Ain’t I a woman: Black women and feminism. Boston: South End Press.
  • Hooks, b. (1984). Feminist theory from margin to center. Boston: South End Press.
  • Hooks, b. (1990). Yearning: Race, gender, and cultural politics. Boston: South End.
  • Houston, M. (2002). Seeking difference: African Americans in interpersonal communication research, 1975–2000. Howard Journal of Communication, 13, 25–41.
  • Houston, M., & Kramarae, C. (1991). Speaking from silence: Methods of silencing and resistance. Discourse & Society, 2, 387–399.
  • Hull, G. T., Scott, P. B., & Smith, B. (Eds.). (1982). All the women are White, all the men are Black, but some of us are brave: Black women’s studies. Old Westbury, NY: Feminist Press.
  • Jacobs, J. A., & Blair-Loy, M. (2001). Gender, race, local labor markets, and occupational devaluation. In E. Anderson & D. Massey (Eds), Problem of the century: Racial stratification in the United States (pp. 347–374). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
  • Jackson, R. L., II. (1999). The negotiation of cultural identity: Perceptions of European Americans and African Americans. Westport, CT: Praeger.
  • Jones, A. P. (1986). Black women and labor force participation: An analysis of sluggish growth rates. In M. Simms & J. Malveaux (Eds.), Slipping through the cracks: The status of Black women (pp. 1132). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
  • Jones, J. (1985). Labor of love, labor of sorrow: Black women, work and the family from slavery to the present. New York: Basic Books.
  • Jorgenson, J. (2002). Engineering selves: Negotiating gender and identities in technical work. Management Communication Quarterly, 15, 350–380.
  • Kalbfleisch, P. J. (2002). Communicating in mentoring relationships: A theory for enactment. Communication Theory, 12, 63–69.
  • Kanter, R. M. (1977). Men and women of the corporation. New York: Basic Books.
  • King, D. K. (1988). Multiple jeopardy, multiple consciousness: The context of a Black feminist ideology. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 14, 42–72.
  • King, T. C., & Ferguson, S. A. (2001). Charting ourselves: Leadership development with Black professional women. NWSA Journal, 13, 123–154.
  • Kirschenman, J., & Neckerman, K. (1992). “We’d love to hire them, but . . .”: The meaning of race for employers. In C. Jencks & P. Petersen (Eds.), The urban underclass (pp. 203–232). Washington, DC: Brookings Institute.
  • Ladner, J. (1972). Tomorrow’s tomorrow: The Black woman. New York: Anchor Books.
  • Levy, F., & Murnane, R. (1992). U.S. earnings levels and earnings inequality: A review of recent trends and proposed explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 30, 1333–1381.
  • Lorde, A. (1984). Sister outsider. Trumansburg, NY: Crossing Press.
  • Lubiano, W. (1992). Black ladies, welfare queens and state minstrels: Ideological war by narrative means. In T. Morrison (Ed.), Race-ing justice, en-gendering power (pp. 321–361). New York: Pantheon.
  • Marshall, J. (1993). Viewing organizational communication from a feminist perspective: A critique and some offerings. In S. Deetz (Ed.), Communication yearbook 16 (pp. 122–143). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
  • Martin, J. (1990). Deconstructing organizational taboos: The suppression of gender conflict in organizations. Organization Science, 1, 339–359.
  • Mathis, D. (2002). Yet a stranger: Why Black Americans still don’tfeel at home. New York: Warner Books.
  • McCluskey, A. T. (1997). “We specialize in the wholly impossible”: Black women school founders and their mission. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 22, 403–426.
  • McDonald, T., & Ford-Ahmed, T. (1999). Nature of a sistuh: Black women’s lived experiences in contemporary culture. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
  • McIntosh, P. (1988). White privilege and male privilege: A personal account of coming to see correspondences through work in women’s studies (Working Paper No. 189). Wellesley, MA: Center for Research on Women, Wellesley College.
  • Moore, J., & Vigil, J. D. (1993). Barrios in transition. In J. Moore & R. Pinderhuges (Eds.), In the barrios: Latinos and the underclass debate (pp. 27–49). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
  • Morton, P. (1991). Disfigured images: The historical assault on Afro-American women. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
  • Mullings, L. (1997). On our own terms: Race, class, and gender in the lives of African American women. New York: Routledge.
  • Mumby, D. K. (1987). The political function of narrative in organizations. Communication Monographs, 54, 113–127.
  • Mumby, D. K. (2001). Power and politics. In F. M. Jablin & L. L. Putnam (Eds.), The new handbook of organizational communication: Advances in theory, research, and methods (pp. 585–623). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
  • Mumby, D. K., & Putnam, L. L. (1992). The politics of emotion: A feminist reading of bounded rationality. Academy of Management Review, 17, 465–486.
  • Mumby, D. K., & Stohl, C. (1998). Commentary: Feminist perspectives in organizational communication. Management Communication Quarterly, 11, 622–634.
  • Murphy, A. G. (1998). Hidden transcripts of flight attendant resistance. Management Communication Quarterly, 11, 499–535.
  • Nkomo, S. M. (1992). The emperor has no clothes: Rewriting race in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 17, 487–513.
  • Nottingham, D. (2001). African American women’s information seeking behavior: A study of MBA students. Unpublished manuscript, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
  • O’Hare, P., Pollard, K., Mann, T., & Kent, M. (1992). African Americans in the 1990s. Population Bulletin, 46, 1.
  • Okely, J. (1991). Defiant moments: Gender, resistance and individuals. Man, 26, 3–22.
  • Omolade, B. (1994). The rising song of African American women. New York: Routledge.
  • Orbe, M. P. (1998a). An outsider within perspective to organizational communication: Explicating the communicative practices of co-cultural group members. Management Communication Quarterly, 19, 230–279.
  • Orbe, M. P. (1998b). Constructing co-cultural theory: An explication of culture, power, and communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Parker, P. S. & Ogilvie, D. T. (1996). Gender, culture, and leadership: Toward a culturally distinct model of African-American women executives’ leadership strategies. Leadership Quarterly, 7, 189–214.
  • Parker, P. S. (1997). African American women executives within dominant culture organizations: An examination of leadership socialization, communication strategies, and leadership behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas, Austin.
  • Parker, P. S. (2001). African American women executives within dominant culture organizations: (Re)conceptualizing notions of instrumentality and collaboration. Management Communication Quarterly, 15, 42–82.
  • Parker, P. S. (2002). Learning leadership: Communication, resistance, and African American women’s executive leadership development. Manuscript submitted for publication.
  • Parker, P. S. (in press). Negotiating identity in raced and gendered workplace interactions: The use of strategic communication by African American women senior executives within dominant culture organizations. Communication Quarterly.
  • Pennington, D. L. (1999). African American women quitting the workplace. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press.
  • Porter, J. L. (1999). There’s always a line of separation: The figuring of race, gender, and class in the construction of corporate identities. In T. McDonald & T. Ford-Ahmed (Eds.), Nature of a sistuh: Black women’s lived experiences in contemporary culture (pp. 133–142). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
  • Prasad, P., Mills, A. J., Elmes, M., & Prasad, A. (Eds.). (1997). Managing the organizational melting pot: Dilemmas of workplace diversity. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Pringle, R. (1988). Secretaries talk. London: Verso.
  • Radford-Hill, S. (2002). Keepin’ it real: A generational commentary on Kimberly Springer’s “Third wave Black feminism?” Signs: A Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 27, 1083–1090.
  • Reid-Merrit, P. (1996). Sister power: How phenomenal Black women are rising to the Top. New York: Wiley.
  • Reinharz, S. (1992). Feminist methods in social research. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Rogers-Rose, L. (Ed.). (1980). The Black woman. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
  • Rollins, J. (1985). Between women: Domestics and their employers. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
  • Rosenfeld, L., & Richman, J. (1999). Supportive communication and school outcomes: Academically “at-risk” low income high school students. Communication Education, 48, 294–307.
  • Rosser, S. V. (1998). Applying feminist theories to women in science programs. Signs: Journal for Women in Culture and Society, 24, 171–200.
  • Rowe, A. (2000). Locating feminism’s subject: The paradox of White femininity and the struggle to forge feminist alliances. Communication Theory, 10, 64–80.
  • Scott, J. (1986). Gender: A useful category of historical analysis. American Historical Review, 91, 1053–1075.
  • Shuter, R., & Turner, L. H. (1997). African American and European American women in the workplace: Perceptions of workplace communication. Management Communication Quarterly, 11, 74–96.
  • Simms, M., & Malveaux, J. (Eds.). (1996). Slipping through the cracks: The status of Black women (pp. 11–32). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
  • Slevin, K. F., & Wingrove, C. R. (1998). From stumbling blocks to stepping stones: The life experiences of fifty professional African American women. New York: New York University Press.
  • Smith, B. (1983). Home girls: A Black feminist anthology. New York: Kitchen Table Press.
  • Sokolof, N. (1987). Black and White women in the professions: A contradictory process. In C. Bose & G. Spitze (Eds.), Ingredients for women’s employment (pp. 53–72). Albany: State University of New York Press.
  • Souza, T. J. (1999). Communication and alternative school socialization. Communication Education, 48, 91–108.
  • Spelman, E. (1988). Inessential woman: Problems of exclusion in feminist thought. Boston: Beacon Press.
  • Squire, C. (1994). Empowering women? The Oprah Winfrey Show. In K. Bhavnani &A. Phoenix (Eds.), Shifting identities, shifting racisms: A feminism & psychology reader (pp. 63–79). London: Sage.
  • Stack, C. B. (1974). All our kin: Strategies for survival in a Black community. New York: Harper & Row.
  • Stack, C. B. (2000). Different voices, different visions: Gender, culture, and moral reasoning. In M. B. Zinn, P. Hondagneu-Sotelo, & M. Messner (Eds.), Gender through the prism of difference (2nd ed., pp. 42–48). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
  • Stall, S., & Stoecker, R. (1998). Community organizing or organizing community? Gender and the crafts of empowerment. Gender & Society, 12(6),729–756.
  • St. Jean, Y., & Feagin, J. R. (1997a). Racial masques: Black women and subtle gendered racism. In N. V. Benokraitis (Ed.), Subtle sexism: Current practice and prospects for change (pp. 179–199). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • St. Jean, Y., & Feagin, J. R. (1997b). Black women, sexism, and racism: Experiencing double jeopardy (pp. 157–180). In C. R. Ronai, B. A. Zsembik, & J. R. Feagin (Eds.), Everyday sexism in the third millennium. New York: Routledge.
  • Tatum, B. (1997). Why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria? And other conversations about race. New York: Basic Books.
  • Taylor, J. (1991, August). Breaking the silence: Questions about race. Paper presented at Resisting Silence: Women Listening to Girls, a symposium conducted at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, CA.
  • Taylor, B. C., & Trujillo, N. (2001). Qualitative research methods. In F. M. Jablin & L. L. Putnam (Eds.), The new handbook of organizational communication: Advances in theory, research, and methods (pp. 161–194). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Thomas, D. A. (1990). The impact of race on managers’ experiences of developmental relationships (mentoring and sponsorship): An intra-organizational study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 479–492.
  • Thomas, D. A. (1993). Racial dynamics in cross-race developmental relationships. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38, 169–194.
  • Thomas, D., & Gabarro, J. J. (1999). Breaking through: The making of minority executives in corporate America. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
  • Tretheway, A. (1997). Resistance, identity, and empowerment: A postmodern feminist analysis of clients in a human service organization. Communication Monographs, 64, 281–301.
  • Twine, F. W. (2000). Feminist fairy tales for Black and American Indian girls: A working-class vision. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 25, 1227–1230.
  • Waldron, V. R., Lavitt, M., & McConnaughey, M. (2001). “Welfare-to-work”: An analysis of the communication competencies taught in a job training program serving an urban poverty area. Communication Education, 50, 15–33.
  • Walker, A. (1983). In search of our mothers’gardens. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • Weis, L., Fine, M., & Morton-Christmas, R. (1999). “I was going up for assistant manager [at McDonalds], but I had to quit because I didn’t have a babysitter and welfare wouldn’t pay for one”: African American women crossing borders. Educational Foundations, 13(2), 5–26.
  • West, C., & Fenstermaker, S. (1995). Doing difference. Gender & Society, 9, 8–37.
  • Williams, P. (1995). The rooster’s egg: On the persistence of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Woody, B. (1992). Black women in the workplace: Impacts of structural change in the economy. New York: Greenwood Press.
  • Yoder, J. D., & Aniakudo, P. (June, 1997). “Outsider within” the firehouse: Subordination and difference in the social interactions of African American women firefighters. Gender & Society, 11, 324–341.
  • Yuval-Davis, N. (1994). Women, ethnicity and empowerment. In K. Bhavnani & A. Phoenix (Eds.), Shifting identities, shifting racisms: A feminism & psychology reader. (pp. 179–197) London: Sage.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.