Historical mitochondrial diversity in African leopards (Panthera pardus) revealed by archival museum specimens

References

• Alpers DL, Van Vuuren BJ, Arctander P, Robinson TJ. 2004. Population genetics of the roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) with suggestions for conservation. Mol Ecol. 13:1771–1784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anthony NM, Johnson-Bawe M, Jeffery K, Clifford SL, Abernethy KA, Tutin CE, Lahm SA, White LJT, Utley JF, Wickings EJ, et al. 2007. The role of Pleistocene refugia and rivers in shaping gorilla genetic diversity in central Africa. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 104:20432–20436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antunes A, Troyer JL, Roelke ME, Pecon-Slattery J, Packer C, Winterbach C, Winterbach H, Hemson G, Frank L, Stander P, et al. 2008. The evolutionary dynamics of the lion Panthera leo revealed by host and viral population genomics. PLoS Genet. 4:3–4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arctander P, Johansen C, Coutellec-Vreto MA. 1999. Phylogeography of three closely related African bovids (tribe Alcelaphini). Mol Biol Evol. 16:1724–1739.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aryal A, Kreigenhofer B. 2009. Summer diet composition of the Common Leopard Panthera pardus (Carnivora: Felidae) in Nepal. J Threat Taxa. 1:562–566.
   Google Scholar
• Athreya V, Odden M, Linnell JDC, Krishnaswamy J, Karanth U. 2013. Big cats in our backyards: persistence of large carnivores in a human dominated landscape in India. PLoS One. 8:2–9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avise JC. 2000. Phylogeography: the history and formation of species. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bah T. 2007. Inkscape: guide to a vector drawing program. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bailey T. 1993. The African leopard: ecology and behavior of a solitary felid. New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bandelt HJ, Forster P, Röhl A. 1999. Median-joining networks for inferring intraspecific phylogenies. Mol Biol Evol. 16:37–48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnett R, Yamaguchi N, Barnes I, Cooper A. 2006. The origin, current diversity and future conservation of the modern lion (Panthera leo). Proc Biol Sci. 273:2119–2125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnett R, Yamaguchi N, Shapiro B, Ho SYW, Barnes I, Sabin R, Werdelin L, Cuisin J, Larson G. 2014. Revealing the maternal demographic history of Panthera leo using ancient DNA and a spatially explicit genealogical analysis. BMC Evol Biol. 14:70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertola LD, van Hooft WF, Vrieling K, Uit de Weerd DR, York DS, Bauer H, Prins HHT, Funston PJ, Udo de Haes HA, Leirs H, et al. 2011. Genetic diversity, evolutionary history and implications for conservation of the lion (Panthera leo) in West and Central Africa. J Biogeogr. 38:1356–1367.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertola LD, Jongbloed H, van der Gaag KJ, de Knijff P, Yamaguchi N, Hooghiemstra H, Bauer H, Henschel P, White PA, Driscoll CA, et al. 2016. Phylogeographic patterns in Africa and high resolution delineation of genetic clades in the lion (Panthera leo). Sci Rep. 6:30807.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertola LD, Tensen L, Van Hooft P, White PA, Driscoll CA, Henschel P, Caragiulo A, Dias-Freedman I, Sogbohossou EA, Tumenta PN, et al. 2015. Autosomal and mtDNA markers affirm the distinctiveness of lions in West and Central Africa. PLoS One. 10:1–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binladen J, Wiuf C, Gilbert MTP, Bunce M, Barnett R, Larson G, Greenwood AD, Haile J, Ho SYW, Hansen AJ, et al. 2006. Assessing the fidelity of ancient DNA sequences amplified from nuclear genes. Genetics. 172:733–741.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Björklund M. 2003. The risk of inbreeding due to habitat loss in the lion (Panthera leo). Conserv Genet. 4:515–523.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowden R, MacFie TS, Myers S, Hellenthal G, Nerrienet E, Bontrop RE, Freeman C, Donnelly P, Mundy NI. 2012. Genomic tools for evolution and conservation in the chimpanzee: Pan troglodytes ellioti is a genetically distinct population. PLoS Genet. 8:1–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burrell AS, Disotell TR, Bergey CM. 2015. The use of museum specimens with high-throughput DNA sequencers. J Hum Evol. 79:35–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busby GBJ, Gottelli D, Wacher T, Marker L, Belbachir F, De Smet K, Belbachir-Bazi A, Fellous A, Belghoul M, Durant SM. 2009. Genetic analysis of scat reveals leopard Panthera pardus and cheetah Acinonyx jubatus in southern Algeria. Oryx. 43:412.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caragiulo A, Dias-Freedman I, Clark JA, Rabinowitz S, Amato G. 2014. Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation and phylogeography of Neotropic pumas (Puma concolor). J DNA Mapping, Seq Anal. 25:304–312.
   Google Scholar
• Caro TM, Laurenson MK. 1994. Ecological and genetic factors in conservation: a cautionary tale. Science (80-). 263:485–486.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castro-Prieto A, Wachter B, Sommer S. 2011. Cheetah paradigm revisited: MHC diversity in the world's largest free-ranging population. Mol Biol Evol. 28:1455–1468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charruau P, Fernandes C, Orozco-Terwengel P, Peters J, Hunter L, Ziaie H, Jourabchian A, Jowkar H, Schaller G, Ostrowski S, et al. 2011. Phylogeography, genetic structure and population divergence time of cheetahs in Africa and Asia: evidence for long-term geographic isolates. Mol Ecol. 20:706–724.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham SW, Shirley MH, Hekkala ER. 2016. Fine scale patterns of genetic partitioning in the rediscovered African crocodile, Crocodylus suchus (Saint-Hilaire 1807). PeerJ. 4:e1901.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demos TC, Kerbis Peterhans JC, Agwanda B, Hickerson MJ. 2014. Uncovering cryptic diversity and refugial persistence among small mammal lineages across the Eastern Afromontane biodiversity hotspot. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 71:41–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diamond AW, Hamilton AC. 2009. The distribution of forest passerine birds and Quaternary climatic change in tropical Africa. J Zool. 191:379–402.
   Google Scholar
• Diversity C. 2010. The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan.
   Google Scholar
• Dobigny G, Tatard C, Gauthier P, Ba K, Duplantier JM, Granjon L, Kergoat GJ. 2013. Mitochondrial and nuclear genes-based phylogeography of Arvicanthis niloticus (Murinae) and sub-saharan open habitats pleistocene history. PLoS One. 8:e77815.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dowell SA, Hekkala ER. 2016. Divergent lineages and conserved niches: using ecological niche modeling to examine the evolutionary patterns of the Nile monitor (Varanus niloticus). Evol Ecol. 53:1–15.
   Google Scholar
• Dowell SA, Portik DM, de Buffrénil V, Ineich I, Greenbaum E, Kolokotronis S-O, Hekkala ER. 2016. Molecular data from contemporary and historical collections reveal a complex story of cryptic diversification in the Varanus (Polydaedalus) niloticus Species Group. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 94:591–604.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubach JM, Briggs MB, White PA, Ament BA, Patterson BD. 2013. Genetic perspectives on “Lion Conservation Units” in Eastern and Southern Africa. Conserv Genet. 14:741–755.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dudley JP, Ginsberg JR, Plumptre AJ, Hart JA, Campos LC. 2002. Effects of War and Civil Strife on Wildlife and Wildlife Habitats. Conserv Biol. 16:319–329.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dupont L. 2011. Orbital scale vegetation change in Africa. Quat Sci Rev. 30:3589–3602.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dutta T, Sharma S, Maldonado JE, Wood TC, Panwar HS, Seidensticker J. 2013. Fine-scale population genetic structure in a wide-ranging carnivore, the leopard (Panthera pardus fusca) in central India. Austin J, editor. Divers Distrib. 19:760–771.
   Google Scholar
• Eizirik E, Kim JH, Menotti-Raymond M, Crawshaw PG, O’Brien SJ, Johnson WE. 2001. Phylogeography, population history and conservation genetics of jaguars (Panthera onca, Mammalia, Felidae). Mol Ecol. 10:65–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Excoffier L, Lischer HEL. 2010. Arlequin suite ver 3.5: A new series of programs to perform population genetics analyses under Linux and Windows. Mol Ecol Resour. 10:564–567.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Excoffier L, Smouse PE, Quattro JM. 1992. Analysis of molecular variance inferred from metric distances among DNA haplotypes: application to human mitochondrial DNA restriction data. Genetics. 131:479–491.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farhadinia MS, Farahmand H, Gavashelishvili A, Kaboli M, Karami M, Khalili B, Montazamy S. 2015. Molecular and craniological analysis of leopard, Panthera pardus (Carnivora: Felidae) in Iran: support for a monophyletic clade in Western Asia. Biol J Linn Soc. 114:721–736.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fennessy J, Bidon T, Reuss F, Vamberger M, Fritz U, Janke Correspondence A, Kumar V, Elkan P, Nilsson MA, Janke A. 2016. Multi-locus Analyses Reveal Four Giraffe Species Instead of One. Curr Biol. 26:1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Futuyma DJ. 2013. Evolution. 3rd ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Gonder KM, Disotell TR. 2006. Contrasting Phylogeographic Histories of Chimpanzees in Nigeria and Cameroon: A Multi-Locus Genetic Analysis. In: Primate Biogeogr. [place unknown]: Springer US; p. 135–168.
   Google Scholar
• Gonder MK, Disotell TR, Oates JF. 2006. New genetic evidence on the evolution of chimpanzee populations and implications for taxonomy. Int J Primatol. 27:1103–1127.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haag T, Santos AS, Sana DA, Morato RG, Cullen L, Crawshaw PG, De Angelo C, Di Bitetti MS, Salzano FM, Eizirik E. 2010. The effect of habitat fragmentation on the genetic structure of a top predator: Loss of diversity and high differentiation among remnant populations of Atlantic Forest jaguars (Panthera onca). Mol Ecol. 19:4906–4921.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayward MW, Henschel P, O’Brien J, Hofmeyr M, Balme G, Kerley GIH. 2006. Prey preferences of the leopard (Panthera pardus). J Zool. 270:298–313.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hekkala E, Shirley MH, Amato G, Austin JD, Charter S, Thorbjarnarson J, Vliet KA, Houck ML, Desalle R, Blum MJ. 2011. An ancient icon reveals new mysteries: mummy DNA resurrects a cryptic species within the Nile crocodile. Mol Ecol. 20:4199–4215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henschel P, Hunter LTB, Coad L, Abernethy KA, Mühlenberg M. 2011. Leopard prey choice in the Congo Basin rainforest suggests exploitative competition with human bushmeat hunters. J Zool. 285:11–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofreiter M, Jaenicke V, Serre D, von Haeseler A, Pääbo S. 2001. DNA sequences from multiple amplifications reveal artifacts induced by cytosine deamination in ancient DNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 29:4793–4799.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter L, Henschel P, Ray JC. 2013. Panthera pardus. In: Kingdon JS, Hoffmann M, editors. The Mamm Africa. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ishida Y, Oleksyk TK, Georgiadis NJ, David VA, Zhao K, Stephens RM, Kolokotronis S-O, Roca AL. 2011. Reconciling apparent conflicts between mitochondrial and nuclear phylogenies in African elephants. PLoS One 6:e20642.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson AP, Gerngross P, Lemeris JRJ, Schoonover RF, Anco C, Breitenmoser-Wursten C, Durant SM, Farhadinia MS, Henschel P, Kamler JF, et al. 2016. Leopard (Panthera pardus) status, distribution, and the research efforts across its range. PeerJ. 36:1–28.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson M, Zaretskaya I, Raytselis Y, Merezhuk Y, McGinnis S, Madden TL. 2008. NCBI BLAST: a better web interface. Nucleic Acids Res. 36:W5–W9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kadu CAC, Schueler S, Konrad H, Muluvi GMM, Eyog-Matig O, Muchugi A, Williams VL, Ramamonjisoa L, Kapinga C, Foahom B, et al. 2011. Phylogeography of the Afromontane Prunus africana reveals a former migration corridor between East and West African highlands. Mol Ecol. 20:165–178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawanishi K, Sunquist ME, Eizirik E, Lynam AJ, Ngoprasert D, Wan Shahruddin WN, Rayan DM, Sharma DSK, Steinmetz R. 2010. Near fixation of melanism in leopards of the Malay Peninsula. J Zool. 282:201–206.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimura M. 1980. A simple method for estimating evolutionary rates of base substitutions through comparative studies of nucleotide sequences. J Mol Evol. 16:111–120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laguardia A, Kamler JF, Li S, Zhang C, Zhou Z, Shi K. 2017. The current distribution and status of leopards Panthera pardus in China. Oryx. 51:153–159.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larkin MA, Blackshields G, Brown NP, Chenna R, McGettigan PA, McWilliam H, Valentin F, Wallace IM, Wilm A, Lopez R, et al. 2007. Clustal W and Clustal X version 2.0. Bioinformatics. 23:2947–2948.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leigh JW, Bryant D. 2015. Popart: full-feature software for haplotype network construction. Methods Ecol Evol. 6:1110–1116.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorenzen ED, Heller R, Siegismund HR. 2012. Comparative phylogeography of African savannah ungulates. Mol Ecol 21:3656–3670.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo SJS, Kim JHJ, Johnson WWE, Walt J, Van Der Walt J, Martenson J, Yuhki N, Miquelle DG, Uphyrkina O, Goodrich JM, et al. 2004. Phylogeography and genetic ancestry of tigers (Panthera tigris). PLoS Biol. 2:e442.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McRae BH, Beier P, Dewald LE, Huynh LY, Keim P. 2005. Habitat barriers limit gene flow and illuminate historical events in a wide-ranging carnivore, the American puma. Mol Ecol. 14:1965–1977.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Measey GJ, Channing A. 2003. Phylogeography of the genus Xenopus in southern Africa. Amphibia-Reptilia. 24:321–330.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menegon M, Loader SP, Marsden SJ, Branch WR, Davenport TRB, Ursenbacher S. 2014. The genus Atheris (Serpentes: Viperidae) in East Africa: phylogeny and the role of rifting and climate in shaping the current pattern of species diversity. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 79:12–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menotti-Raymond M, O’Brien SJ. 1993. Dating the genetic bottleneck of the African cheetah. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 90:3172–3176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mercader J, Runge F, Vrydaghs L, Doutrelepont H, Ewango C, Juan-Tresseras J. 2000. Phytoliths from Archaeological Sites in the Tropical Forest of Ituri, Democratic Republic of Congo. Quat Res. 54:102–112.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell D, Willerslev E, Hansen A. 2005. Damage and repair of ancient DNA. Mutat Res Mol Mech Mutagen. 571:265–276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miththapala S, Seidensticker J, O’Brien SJ. 1996. Phylogeographic subspecies recognition in leopards (Panthera pardus): Molecular genetic variation. Conserv Biol. 10:1115–1132.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mondol S, Bruford MW, Ramakrishnan U. 2013. Demographic loss, genetic structure and the conservation implications for Indian tigers. Proc Biol Sci. 280:1–10. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2013.0496.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mondol S, Navya R, Athreya V. 2009. A panel of microsatellites to individually identify leopards and its application to leopard monitoring in human dominated landscapes. BMC Genet. 10:79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moodley Y, Bruford MW. 2007. Molecular biogeography: Towards an integrated framework for conserving Pan-African biodiversity. PLoS One. 2:e454.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicolas V, Missoup AD, Denys C, Kerbis Peterhans J, Katuala P, Couloux A, Colyn M. 2011. The roles of rivers and Pleistocene refugia in shaping genetic diversity in Praomys misonnei in tropical Africa. J Biogeogr. 38:191–207.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nowell K, Jackson P. 1996. Wild cats. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
   Google Scholar
• O’Brien S, Roelke M, Marker L, Newman A, Winkler C, Meltzer D, Colly L, Evermann J, Bush M, Wildt D. 1985. Genetic basis for species vulnerability in the cheetah. Science (80-). 227:1428–1434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien SJ, Martenson JS, Packer C, Herbst L, Devos V, Joslin P, Ottjoslin J, Wildt DE, Bush M. 1987. Biochemical genetic-variation in geographic isolates of African and Asiatic Lions. Natl Geogr Res. 3:114–124.
   Google Scholar
• O’Brien SJ, Wildt DE, Goldman D, Merril CR, Bush M. 1983. The cheetah is depauperate in genetic variation. Science. 221:459–462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odden M, Athreya V, Rattan S, Linnell J. 2014. Adaptable neighbours: movement patterns of GPS-collared leopards in human dominated landscapes in India. PLoS One. 9:e112044.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olson DM, Dinerstein E, Wikramanayake ED, Burgess ND, Powell GVN, Underwood EC, D’amico J. a, Itoua I, Strand HE, Morrison JC, et al. 2001. Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on earth. Bioscience. 51:933.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pääbo S. 1989. Ancient DNA: extraction, characterization, molecular cloning, and enzymatic amplification. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 86:1939–1943.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paabo S, Poinar H, Serre D, Svante P, Jaenicke-despr V, Hebler J, Rohland N, Kuch M, Krause J, Vigilant L, et al. 2004. Genetic analyses from ancient DNA. Annu Rev Genet. 38:645–679.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Packer C, Brink H, Kissui BM, Maliti H, Kushnir H, Caro T. 2011. Effects of trophy hunting on lion and leopard populations in Tanzania. Conserv Biol. 25:142–153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raza RH, Chauhan DS, Pasha MKS, Sinha S. 2012. Illuminating the blind spot: A study on illegal trade in leopard parts in India (2001-2010). New Delhi, India:TRAFFIC India/WWF India.
   Google Scholar
• Riggio J, Jacobson A, Dollar L, Bauer H, Becker M, Dickman A, Funston P, Groom R, Henschel P, de Iongh H, et al. 2013. The size of savannah Africa: A lion’s (Panthera leo) view. Biodivers Conserv. 22:17–35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ropiquet A, Knight AT, Born C, Martins Q, Balme G, Kirkendall L, Hunter L, Senekal C, Matthee CA. 2015. Implications of spatial genetic patterns for conserving African leopards. Comptes Rendus Biol. 338:728–737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rostro-García S, Kamler JF, Ash E, Clements GR, Gibson L, Lynam A, McEwing R, Naing H, Paglia S. 2016. Endangered leopards: range collapse of the Indochinese leopard (Panthera pardus delacouri) in Southeast Asia. Biol Conserv. 201:293–300.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma S, Dutta T, Maldonado E, Wood C, Panwar HS, Seidensticker J, Maldonado JE, Wood TC. 2013. Forest corridors maintain historical gene flow in a tiger metapopulation in the highlands of central India. Proc Biol Sci. 280:20131506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smitz N, Berthouly C, Cornélis D, Heller R, van Hooft P, Chardonnet P, Caron A, Prins H, van Vuuren BJ, de Iongh H, et al. 2013. Pan-African genetic structure in the African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer): investigating intraspecific divergence. PLoS One. 8:e56235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spalton JA, Al Hikmani HM. 2006. The leopard in the Arabian Peninsula – distribution and subspecies status. Cat News Special Issue 1 - Arabian Leopard: 4–8.
   Google Scholar
• Steele TE. 2007. Late Pleistocene of Africa. In: Elias SA, editor. Encyclopedia Quat Sci. Amsterdam: Elsevier; p. 3139–3150.
   Google Scholar
• Stein AB, Athreya V, Gerngross P, Balme G, Henschel P, Karanth U, Miquelle D, Rostro S, Kamler JF, Laguardia A. 2016. Panthera pardus. IUCN Red List Threat Species.
   Google Scholar
• Stein AB, Hayssen V. 2013. Panthera pardus (Carnivora: Felidae). Mamm Species. 900:30–48.
   Google Scholar
• Sunquist M, Sunquist F. 2002. Wild Cats of the World. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Swanepoel LH, Lindsey P, Somers MJ, van Hoven W, Dalerum F. 2013. Extent and fragmentation of suitable leopard habitat in South Africa. Anim Conserv. 16:41–50.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamura K, Stecher G, Peterson D, Filipski A, Kumar S. 2013. MEGA6: Molecular evolutionary genetics analysis version 6.0. Mol Biol Evol. 30:2725–2729.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toews DPL, Brelsford A. 2012. The biogeography of mitochondrial and nuclear discordance in animals. Mol Ecol. 21:3907–3930.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tolley KA, Tilbury CR, Measey GJ, Menegon M, Branch WR, Matthee CA. 2011. Ancient forest fragmentation or recent radiation? Testing refugial speciation models in chameleons within an African biodiversity hotspot. J Biogeogr. 38:1748–1760.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner A. 1990. The evolution of the guild of larger terrestrial carnivores during the Plio-Pleistocene in Africa. Geobios 23:349–368.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner A. 1999. Evolution in African Plio-Pleistocene mammalian fauna: correlation and causation. In: African Biogeogr Clim Chang early Hum Evol. Oxford: Oxford University Press; p. 76–87.
   Google Scholar
• UNEP. 2007. Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment. Nairobi, Kenya.
   Google Scholar
• Uphyrkina O, Johnson WE, Quigley H, Miquelle D, Marker L, Bush M, O’Brien SJ. 2001. Phylogenetics, genome diversity and origin of modern leopard, Panthera pardus. Mol Ecol. 10:2617–2633.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei L, Wu XB, Zhu LX, Jiang ZG. 2011. Mitogenomic analysis of the genus Panthera. Sci China Life Sci. 54:917–930.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werdelin L, Lewis ME. 2005. Plio-Pleistocene Carnivora of eastern Africa: Species richness and turnover patterns. Zool J Linn Soc. 144:121–144.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werdelin L, Lewis ME, Haile-Selassie Y. 2014. Mid-Pliocene Carnivora from the Woranso-Mille Area, Afar Region, Ethiopia. J Mamm Evol. 21:331–347.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werdelin L, Yamaguchi N, Johnson E, Brien SJO. 2010. Phylogeny and evolution of cats (Felidae). In: Biol Conserv Wild Felids. Vol. 12. Oxford: Oxford University Press; p. 59–82.
   Google Scholar
• Won YJ, Hey J. 2005. Divergence population genetics of chimpanzees. Mol Biol Evol. 22:297–307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmermann J, Hajibabaei M, Blackburn DC, Hanken J, Cantin E, Posfai J, Evans TC. 2008. DNA damage in preserved specimens and tissue samples: a molecular assessment. Front Zool. 5:18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar