Chapter 13: Tuberculosis surveillance and tuberculosis infection testing and treatment in migrants

References

• Statistics Canada. Immigration and ethnocultural diversity: key results from the 2016 census. Statistics Canada; 2017. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/171025/dq171025b-eng.htm Accessed June 14, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada. Table 24-10-0005-01 International travellers entering or returning to Canada, by province of entry, seasonally adjusted. Accessed May 25, 2021. doi:10.25318/2410000501-eng.
   Google Scholar
• Magalhaes L, Carrasco C, Gastaldo D. Undocumented migrants in Canada: a scope literature review on health, access to services, and working conditions. J Immigr Minor Health. 2010;12(1):132–151. doi:10.1007/s10903-009-9280-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. 2020 annual report to Parliament on immigration. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada; 2020. https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/annual-report-parliament-immigration-2020.html. Accessed June 28, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• LaFreniere M, Hussain H, He N, McGuire M. Tuberculosis in Canada: 2017. Can Commun Dis Rep. 2019;45(2-3):67–74. doi:10.14745/ccdr.v45i23a04.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Public Health Agency of Canada. Tuberculosis in Canada 2019, pre-release. 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell JR, Chen W, Johnston J, et al. Latent tuberculosis infection screening in immigrants to low-incidence countries: a meta-analysis. Mol Diagn Ther. Apr. 2015;19(2):107–117. doi:10.1007/s40291-015-0135-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell JR. Reducing the Tuberculosis Burden in Migrant Populations through Latent Tuberculosis Infection Interventions: A Series of Cost-Effectiveness Analyses [Thesis/Dissertation]. University of British Columbia; 2018. https://open.library.ubc.ca/media/download/pdf/24/1.0363447/4.
   Google Scholar
• Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. Medical inadmissibility. Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/application/medical-police/medical-exams/requirements-permanent-residents.html. Accessed September 30, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. Medical exam for permanent resident applicants. Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/application/medical-police/medical-exams/requirements-permanent-residents.html. Accessed August 10, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. Medical exams for visitors, students and workers. Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/application/medical-police/medical-exams/requirements-temporary-residents.html. Accessed August 10, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. Find out if you need a medical exam. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/application/medical-police/medical-exams/requirements-temporary-residents/country-requirements.html. Accessed August 13, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. Canadian panel member guide to immigration medical examinations 2020. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/panel-members-guide.html. Accessed June 3, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Global Case Management System 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Khan K, Hirji MM, Miniota J, et al. Domestic impact of tuberculosis screening among new immigrants to Ontario, Canada. CMAJ. 2015;187(16):E473–E481. doi:10.1503/cmaj.150011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asadi L, Heffernan C, Menzies D, Long R. Effectiveness of Canada’s tuberculosis surveillance strategy in identifying immigrants at risk of developing and transmitting tuberculosis: a population-based retrospective cohort study. Lancet Public Health. 2017;2(10):e450–e457. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30161-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. Notifying clients that they require medical surveillance. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/operational-bulletins-manuals/standard-requirements/medical-requirements/surveillance-notifications/notifying-clients-that-they-require-medical-surveillance.html. Accessed August 16, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. Medical surveillance handout: inactive tuberculosis or other complex non-infectious tuberculosis. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/operational-bulletins-manuals/standard-requirements/medical-requirements/tuberculosis.html. Accessed August 16, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Russell K, Szala J, Fisher D. Immigration related tuberculosis surveillance: getting clients to the clinic [Poster presentation - TB Public Health. Poster Forum, American Thoracic Society Conference]. Am J Resp Crit Care Med. 2008;177.
   Google Scholar
• Alvarez GG, Gushulak B, Rumman KA, et al. A comparative examination of tuberculosis immigration medical screening programs from selected countries with high immigration and low tuberculosis incidence rates. BMC Infect Dis. 2011;11(3)doi:10.1186/1471-2334-11-3.
   Google Scholar
• Long R, Asadi L, Heffernan C, et al. Is there a fundamental flaw in Canada’s post-arrival immigrant surveillance system for tuberculosis? PLoS One. 2019;14(3):e0212706. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0212706.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell JR, Johnston JC, Cook VJ, Sadatsafavi M, Elwood RK, Marra F. Cost-effectiveness of latent tuberculosis infection screening before immigration to low-incidence countries. Emerg Infect Dis. 2019;25(4):661–671. doi:10.3201/eid2504.171630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cain KP, Haley CA, Armstrong LR, et al. Tuberculosis among foreign-born persons in the United States: achieving tuberculosis elimination. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;175(1):75–79. doi:10.1164/rccm.200608-1178OC.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Creatore MI, Lam M, Wobeser WL. Patterns of tuberculosis risk over time among recent immigrants to Ontario, Canada. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2005;9(6):667–672.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farah MG, Meyer HE, Selmer R, Heldal E, Bjune G. Long-term risk of tuberculosis among immigrants in Norway. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34(5):1005–1011. doi:10.1093/ije/dyi058.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenaway C, Sandoe A, Vissandjee B, et al. Tuberculosis: evidence review for newly arriving immigrants and refugees. Can Med Assoc J. 2011;183(12):E939–51. doi:10.1503/cmaj.090302.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kristensen KL, Ravn P, Petersen JH, et al. Long-term risk of tuberculosis among migrants according to migrant status: a cohort study. Int J Epidemiol. 2020;49(3):776–785. doi:10.1093/ije/dyaa063.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ronald LA, Campbell JR, Balshaw RF, et al. Demographic predictors of active tuberculosis in people migrating to British Columbia, Canada: a retrospective cohort study. Can Med Assoc J. 2018;190(8):E209–E216. doi:10.1503/cmaj.170817.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langlois-Klassen D, Wooldrage KM, Manfreda J, et al. Piecing the puzzle together: foreign-born tuberculosis in an immigrant-receiving country. Eur Respir J. 2011;38(4):895–902. doi:10.1183/09031936.00196610.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Talwar A, Li R, Langer AJ. Association between birth region and time to tuberculosis diagnosis among non-US-born persons in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 2021;27(6):1645–1653. doi:10.3201/eid2706.203663.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menzies NA, Hill AN, Cohen T, Salomon JA. The impact of migration on tuberculosis in the United States. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2018;22(12):1392–1403. doi:10.5588/ijtld.17.0185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dale KD, Trauer JM, Dodd PJ, Houben RMGJ, Denholm JT. Estimating long-term tuberculosis reactivation rates in Australian migrants. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;70(10):2111–2118. doi:10.1093/cid/ciz569.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta RK, Calderwood CJ, Yavlinsky A, et al. Discovery and validation of a personalized risk predictor for incident tuberculosis in low transmission settings. Nat Med. 2020;26(12):1941–1949. doi:10.1038/s41591-020-1076-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsang CA, Langer AJ, Navin TR, Armstrong LR. Tuberculosis among foreign-born persons diagnosed ≥10 years after arrival in the United States, 2010-2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66(11):295–298. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6611a3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. Tuberculosis among Indochinese refugees - an update. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1981;30(48):603–606.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Enarson DA. Active tuberculosis in Indochinese refugees in British Columbia. Can Med Assoc J. 1984;131(1):39–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorpe LE, Laserson K, Cookson S, et al. Infectious tuberculosis among newly arrived refugees in the United States. New Engl J Med. 2004;350(20):2105–2106. doi:10.1056/NEJM200405133502023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilcke JTR, Poulsen S, Askgaard DS, Enevoldsen HK, Rønne T, Kok-Jensen A. Tuberculosis in a cohort of Vietnamese refugees after arrival in Denmark 1979-1982. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1998;2(3):219–224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadzibegovic DS, Maloney SA, Cookson ST, Oladele A. Determining TB rates and TB case burden for refugees. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2005;9(4):409–414.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proença R, Mattos Souza F, Lisboa Bastos M, et al. Active and latent tuberculosis in refugees and asylum seekers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health. 2020;20(1):838. doi:10.1186/s12889-020-08907-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FitzGerald JM, Fanning A, Hoepnner V, Hershfield E, Kunimoto D. The Canadian Molecular Epidemiology of TB Study Group. The molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis in western Canada. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2003;7(2):132–138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guthrie JL, Kong C, Roth D, et al. Molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis in British Columbia, Canada: a 10-year retrospective study. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66(6):849–856. doi:10.1093/cid/cix906.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernández-Garduño E, Kunimoto D, Wang L, et al. Predictors of clustering of tuberculosis in greater Vancouver: a molecular epidemiologic study. Can Med Assoc J. 2002;167(4):349–352.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunimoto D, Sutherland K, Wooldrage K, et al. Transmission characteristics of tuberculosis in the foreign-born and the Canadian-born population of Alberta, Canada. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2004;8(10):1213–1220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guthrie JL, Marchand-Austin A, Cronin K, et al. Universal genotyping reveals province-level differences in the molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis. PLoS One. 2019;14(4):e0214870. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0214870.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heffernan C, Barrie J, Doroshenko A, et al. Prompt recognition of infectious pulmonary tuberculosis is critical to achieving elimination goals: a retrospective cohort study. BMJ Open Respir Res. 2020;7(1) doi:10.1136/bmjresp-2019-000521.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. Fact sheets: the difference between latent TB infection and TB disease. Centers for Disease Controls & Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/factsheets/general/ltbiandactivetb.htm. Accessed August 16, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell JR, Winters N, Menzies D. Absolute risk of tuberculosis among untreated populations with a positive tuberculin skin test or interferon-gamma release assay result: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2020;368:m549. doi:10.1136/bmj.m549.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Menzies D, Adjobimey M, Ruslami R, et al. Four months of rifampin or nine months of isoniazid for latent tuberculosis in adults. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(5):440–453. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1714283.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ronald LA, FitzGerald JM, Bartlett-Esquilant G, et al. Treatment with isoniazid or rifampin for latent tuberculosis infection: population-based study of hepatotoxicity, completion and costs. Eur Respir J. 2020;55(3):1902048. doi:10.1183/13993003.02048-2019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell JR, Al-Jahdali H, Bah B, et al. Safety and efficacy of rifampin or isoniazid among people with Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and living with human immunodeficiency virus or other health conditions: post-hoc analysis of two randomized trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73(9):e3545-e54. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa1169.
   Google Scholar
• Zenner D, Beer N, Harris RJ, Lipman MC, Stagg HR, van der Werf MJ. Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection: an updated network meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2017;167(4):248–255. doi:10.7326/M17-0609.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ronald LA, Campbell JR, Rose C, et al. Estimated impact of World Health Organization latent tuberculosis screening guidelines in a region with a low tuberculosis incidence: retrospective cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;69(12):2101–2108. doi:10.1093/cid/ciz188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. TB country regional and global profiles. World Health Organization. Accessed December 7, 2021, 2021. https://worldhealthorg.shinyapps.io/tb_profiles/.
   Google Scholar
• Alsdurf H, Hill PC, Matteelli A, Getahun H, Menzies D. The cascade of care in diagnosis and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16(11):1269–1278. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30216-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rustage K, Lobe J, Hayward SE, et al. Initiation and completion of treatment for latent tuberculosis infection in migrants globally: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2021; 21(12):1701–12. doi:10.1101/2021.06.09.21258452
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandgren A, Vonk Noordegraaf-Schouten M, van Kessel F, Stuurman A, Oordt-Speets A, van der Werf MJ. Initiation and completion rates for latent tuberculosis infection treatment: a systematic review. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16:204. doi:10.1186/s12879-016-1550-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malekinejad M, Parriott A, Viitanen AP, Horvath H, Marks SM, Kahn JG. Yield of community-based tuberculosis targeted testing and treatment in foreign-born populations in the United States: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2017;12(8):e0180707. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0180707.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pontarelli A, Marchese V, Scolari C, et al. Screening for active and latent tuberculosis among asylum seekers in Italy: A retrospective cohort analysis. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2019;27:39–45. doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2018.10.015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed S, Shommu NS, Rumana N, Barron GR, Wicklum S, Turin TC. Barriers to access of primary healthcare by immigrant populations in Canada: a literature review. J Immigr Minor Health. 2016;18(6):1522–1540. Decdoi:10.1007/s10903-015-0276-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al Shamsi H, Almutairi AG, Al Mashrafi S, Al Kalbani T. Implications of language barriers for healthcare: a systematic review. Oman Med J. 2020;35(2):e122. doi:10.5001/omj.2020.40.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Seedat F, Hargreaves S, Nellums LB, Ouyang J, Brown M, Friedland JS. How effective are approaches to migrant screening for infectious diseases in Europe? A systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18(9):e259–e271. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30117-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao J, Berry NS, Taylor D, Venners SA, Cook VJ, Mayhew M. Knowledge and perceptions of latent tuberculosis infection among Chinese immigrants in a Canadian urban centre. Int J Family Med. 2015;2015:546042. doi:10.1155/2015/546042.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coreil J, Lauzardo M, Heurtenou M. Cultural feasibility assessment of tuberculosis prevention among persons of Haitian origin in South Florida. J Immigr Health. 2004;6(2):63–69. doi:10.1023/B:JOIH.0000019166.80968.70.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hall J, Kabir TM, Shih P, Degeling C. Insights into culturally appropriate latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) screening in NSW: perspectives of Indian and Pakistani migrants. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2020;44(5):353–359. doi:10.1111/1753-6405.13021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordstoga I, Drage M, Steen TW, Winje BA. Wanting to or having to - a qualitative study of experiences and attitudes towards migrant screening for tuberculosis in Norway. BMC Public Health. 2019;19(1):796. doi:10.1186/s12889-019-7128-z.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Spruijt I, Haile DT, van den Hof S, et al. Knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and stigma related to latent tuberculosis infection: a qualitative study among Eritreans in the Netherlands. BMC Public Health. 2020;20(1):1602. doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09697-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spruijt I, Haile DT, Erkens C, et al. Strategies to reach and motivate migrant communities at high risk for TB to participate in a latent tuberculosis infection screening program: a community-engaged, mixed methods study among Eritreans. BMC Public Health. 2020;20(1):315. doi:10.1186/s12889-020-8390-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spruijt I, Tesfay Haile D, Suurmond J, et al. Latent tuberculosis screening and treatment among asylum seekers: a mixed-methods study. Eur Respir J. 2019;54(5):1900861. doi:10.1183/13993003.00861-2019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikram S, O’Brien K, Rahman A, Potter J, Burman M, Kunst H. P204 - Barriers and facilitators to delivering latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) screening and treatment to recent migrants: a survey of providers in a high prevalence TB setting in the UK. Thorax. 2019;74(Suppl 2):A199–A200. doi:10.1183/13993003.congress-2020.508.
   Google Scholar
• Nguyen Truax F, Morisky D, Low J, Carson M, Girma H, Nyamathi A. Non-completion of latent tuberculosis infection treatment among Vietnamese immigrants in Southern California: A retrospective study. Public Health Nurs. 2020;37(6):846–853. doi:10.1111/phn.12798.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett RJ, Brodine S, Waalen J, Moser K, Rodwell TC. Prevalence and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection among newly arrived refugees in San Diego County, January 2010-October 2012. Am J Public Health. 2014;104(4):e95–e102. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2013.301637.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jimenez-Fuentes MA, de Souza-Galvao ML, Mila Auge C, Solsona Peiro J, Altet-Gomez MN. Rifampicin plus isoniazid for the prevention of tuberculosis in an immigrant population. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2013;17(3):326–332. doi:10.5588/ijtld.12.0510.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spruijt I, Erkens C, Suurmond J, et al. Implementation of latent tuberculosis infection screening and treatment among newly arriving immigrants in the Netherlands: A mixed methods pilot evaluation. PLoS One. 2019;14(7):e0219252. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0219252.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milinkovic DA, Birch S, Scott F, et al. Low prioritization of latent tuberculosis infection - a systemic barrier to tuberculosis control: a qualitative study in Ontario, Canada. Int J Health Plann Manage. 2019;34(1):384–395. doi:10.1002/hpm.2670.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wieland ML, Weis JA, Yawn BP, et al. Perceptions of tuberculosis among immigrants and refugees at an adult education center: a community-based participatory research approach. J Immigr Minor Health. 2012;14(1):14–22. doi:10.1007/s10903-010-9391-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berrocal-Almanza LC, Botticello J, Piotrowski H, et al. Engaging with civil society to improve access to LTBI screening for new migrants in England: a qualitative study. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2019;23(5):563–570. doi:10.5588/ijtld.18.0230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gany FM, Trinh-Shevrin C, Changrani J. Drive-by readings: a creative strategy for tuberculosis control among immigrants. Am J Public Health. 2005;95(1):117–119. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2003.019620.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erkens CGM, Slump E, Verhagen M, et al. Monitoring latent tuberculosis infection diagnosis and management in the Netherlands. Eur Respir J. 2016;47(5):1492–1501. doi:10.1183/13993003.01397-2015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shieh FK, Snyder G, Horsburgh CR, Bernardo J, Murphy C, Saukkonen JJ. Predicting non-completion of treatment for latent tuberculous infection: a prospective survey. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;174(6):717–721. doi:10.1164/rccm.200510-1667OC.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien K, Ikram S, Burman M, Rahman A, Kunst H. P202 - Evaluation of a latent tuberculosis infection screening and treatment programme for recent migrants. Thorax. 2019;74(Suppl 2):A199.
   Google Scholar
• Brewin P, Jones A, Kelly M, et al. Is screening for tuberculosis acceptable to immigrants? A qualitative study. J Public Health (Oxf). 2006;28(3):253–260. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdl031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustavson G, Narita M, Gardner Toren K. Reporting of latent TB infection among non-US-born persons adjusting their immigration status to permanent residents: an opportunity to enhance TB prevention. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2022; 28(2):184–7. doi:10.1097/PHH.0000000000001405.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atchison C, Zenner D, Barnett L, Pareek M. Treating latent TB in primary care: a survey of enablers and barriers among UK General Practitioners. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:331. doi:10.1186/s12879-015-1091-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LoBue PA, Moser K, Catanzaro A. Management of tuberculosis in San Diego County: a survey of physicians’ knowledge, attitudes and practices. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. //2001;5(10):933–938.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pareek M, Abubakar I, White PJ, Garnett GP, Lalvani A. Tuberculosis screening of migrants to low-burden nations: insights from evaluation of UK practice. Eur Respir J. 2011;37(5):1175–1182. doi:10.1183/09031936.00105810.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waldorf B, Gill C, Crosby SS. Assessing adherence to accepted national guidelines for immigrant and refugee screening and vaccines in an urban primary care practice: a retrospective chart review. J Immigr Minor Health. 2014;16(5):839–845. doi:10.1007/s10903-013-9808-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hargreaves S, Nellums LB, Johnson C, et al. Delivering multi-disease screening to migrants for latent TB and blood-borne viruses in an emergency department setting: A feasibility study. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2020;36:101611. doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carvalho AC, Saleri N, El-Hamad I, et al. Completion of screening for latent tuberculosis infection among immigrants. Epidemiol Infect. 2005;133(1):179–185. doi:10.1017/s0950268804003061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardam M, Verma G, Campbell A, Wang J, Khan K. Impact of the patient-provider relationship on the survival of foreign born outpatients with tuberculosis. J Immigr Minor Health. 2009;11(6):437–445. doi:10.1007/s10903-008-9221-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg SV, Wallace J, Jackson JC, Chaulk CP, Nolan CM. Cultural case management of latent tuberculosis infection. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2004;8(1):76–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ailinger RL, Martyn D, Lasus H, Lima Garcia N. The effect of a cultural intervention on adherence to latent tuberculosis infection therapy in Latino immigrants. Public Health Nurs. 2010;27(2):115–120. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1446.2010.00834.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boga JA, Casado L, Fernandez-Suarez J, et al. Screening program for imported diseases in immigrant women: analysis and implications from a gender-oriented perspective. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2020;103(1):480–484. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.19-0687.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bil JP, Schrooders PA, Prins M, et al. Integrating hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV screening into tuberculosis entry screening for migrants in the Netherlands, 2013 to 2015. Euro Surveill. 2018;23(11):pii=17-00491. doi:10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2018.23.11.17-00491.
   Google Scholar
• Cuomo G, Franconi I, Riva N, et al. Migration and health: a retrospective study about the prevalence of HBV, HIV, HCV, tuberculosis and syphilis infections amongst newly arrived migrants screened at the Infectious Diseases Unit of Modena, Italy. J Infect Public Health. 2019;12(2):200–204. doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2018.10.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hargreaves S, Seedat F, Car J, et al. Screening for latent TB, HIV, and hepatitis B/C in new migrants in a high prevalence area of London, UK: a cross-sectional study. Clinical Trial. BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14(1):657. doi:10.1186/s12879-014-0657-2.
   Google Scholar
• Barss L, Moayedi-Nia S, Campbell JR, Oxlade O, Menzies D. Interventions to reduce losses in the cascade of care for latent tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2020;24(1):100–109. doi:10.5588/ijtld.19.0185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffiths C, Sturdy P, Brewin P, et al. Educational outreach to promote screening for tuberculosis in primary care: a cluster randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2007;369(9572):1528–1534. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60707-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller AP, Malekinejad M, Horvath H, Blodgett JC, Kahn JG, Marks SM. Healthcare facility-based strategies to improve tuberculosis testing and linkage to care in non-U.S.-born population in the United States: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2019;14(9):e0223077. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0223077.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wieland ML, Nigon JA, Weis JA, Espinda-Brandt L, Beck D, Sia IG. Sustainability of a tuberculosis screening program at an adult education center through community-based participatory research. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2019;25(6):602–605. doi:10.1097/PHH.0000000000000851.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Essadek HO, Mendioroz J, Guiu IC, et al. Community strategies to tackle tuberculosis according to the WHO region of origin of immigrant communities. Public Health Action. 2018;8(3):135–140. doi:10.5588/pha.18.0011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker CL, Duffield K, Kaur H, Dedicoat M, Gajraj R. Acceptability of latent tuberculosis testing of migrants in a college environment in England. Public Health. 2018;158:55–60. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2018.02.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hovell MF, Schmitz KE, Blumberg EJ, Hill L, Sipan C, Friedman L. Lessons learned from two interventions designed to increase adherence to LTBI treatment in Latino youth. Contemp Clin Trials Commun. Dec. 2018;12:129–136. doi:10.1016/j.conctc.2018.08.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Einterz EM, Younge O, Hadi C. The impact of a public health department’s expansion from a one-step to a two-step refugee screening process on the detection and initiation of treatment of latent tuberculosis. Public Health. 2018;159:27–30. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2018.03.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuurman AL, Vonk Noordegraaf-Schouten M, van Kessel F, Oordt-Speets AM, Sandgren A, van der Werf MJ. Interventions for improving adherence to treatment for latent tuberculosis infection: a systematic review. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16:257. doi:10.1186/s12879-016-1549-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villa S, Ferrarese M, Sotgiu G, et al. Latent tuberculosis infection treatment completion while shifting prescription from isoniazid-only to rifampicin-containing regimens: a two-decade experience in Milan, Italy. JCM. 2019;9(1):101. doi:10.3390/jcm9010101.
   Google Scholar
• Njie GJ, Morris SB, Woodruff RY, Moro RN, Vernon AA, Borisov AS. Isoniazid-rifapentine for latent tuberculosis infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Prev Med. 2018;55(2):244–252. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2018.04.030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diefenbach-Elstob TR, Alabdulkarim B, Deb-Rinker P, et al. Risk of latent and active tuberculosis infection in travellers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Travel Med. Jan. 2021;28(1). doi:10.1093/jtm/taaa214.
   Google Scholar
• Angell SY, Cetron MS. Health disparities among travelers visiting friends and relatives abroad. Ann Intern Med. 2005;142:67–72. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-142-1-200501040-00013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bacaner N, Stauffer B, Boulware DR, Walker PF, Keystone JS. Travel medicine considerations for North American immigrants visitng friends and relatives. JAMA. 2004;291(23):2856–2864. doi:10.1001/jama.291.23.2856.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fenner L, Weber R, Steffen R, Schlagenhauf P. Imported infectious disease and purpose of travel, Switzerland. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(2):217–222. doi:10.3201/eid1302.060847.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gautret P, Cramer JP, Field V, et al. Infectious diseases among travellers and migrants in Europe, EuroTravNet 2010. Euro Surveill. 2012;17(26):16–26.
   Google Scholar
• McCarthy OR. Asian immigrant tuberculosis – the effect of visiting Asia. Br J Dis Chest. 1984;78:248–253.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ormerod LP, Green RM, Gray S. Are there still effects on Indian Subcontinent ethnic tuberculosis of return visits?: a longitudinal study 1978-97. J Infect. 2001;43(2):132–134. doi:10.1053/jinf.2001.0872.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wikman-Jorgensen P, Lopez-Velez R, Llenas-Garcia J, et al. Latent and active tuberculosis infections in migrants and travellers: a retrospective analysis from the Spanish + REDIVI collaborative network. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2020;36:101460. doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2019.07.016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kik SV, Mensen M, Beltman M, et al. Risk of travelling to the country of origin for tuberculosis among immigrants living in a low-incidence country. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2011;15(1):38–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saiman L, Gabriel PS, Schulte J, Vargas MP, Kenyon T, Onorato I. Risk factors for latent tuberculosis infection among children in New York City. Pediatrics. 2001;107(5):999–1003. doi:10.1542/peds.107.5.999.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young J, O’Connor ME. Risk factors associated with latent tuberculosis infection in Mexican American children. Pediatrics. 2005;115(6):e647-53. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-1685.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan M, Menzies D, Schwartzman K. Tuberculosis screening of travelers to higher-incidence countries: a cost-effectiveness analysis. BMC Public Health. 2008;8:201. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-8-201.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell JR, Johnston JC, Sadatsafavi M, Cook VJ, Elwood RK, Marra F. Cost-effectiveness of post-landing latent tuberculosis infection control strategies in new migrants to Canada. PLoS One. 2017;12(10):e0186778. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0186778.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dale KD, Abayawardana MJ, McBryde ES, Trauer JM, Carvalho N. Modeling the cost-effectiveness of latent tuberculosis screening and treatment strategies in recent migrants to a low-incidence setting. Am J Epidemiol. 2022;91(2):255–70. doi:10.1093/aje/kwab150.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jo Y, Shrestha S, Gomes I, et al. Model-based cost-effectiveness of state-level latent tuberculosis interventions in California, Florida, New York, and Texas. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73(9):e3476–e82. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa857.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pareek M, Watson JP, Ormerod LP, et al. Screening of immigrants in the UK for imported latent tuberculosis: a multicentre cohort study and cost-effectiveness analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2011;11(6):435–444. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(11)70069-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar