Chapter 11: Tuberculosis contact investigation and outbreak management

References

• Lonnroth K, Migliori GB, Abubakar I, et al. Towards tuberculosis elimination: an action framework for low-incidence countries. Eur Respir J. 2015;45(4):928–952. doi:10.1183/09031936.00214014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erkens CG, Kamphorst M, Abubakar I, et al. Tuberculosis contact investigation in low prevalence countries: a European consensus. Eur Respir J. 2010;36(4):925–949. doi:10.1183/09031936.00201609.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole B, Nilsen DM, Will L, Etkind SC, Burgos M, Chorba T. Essential Components of a Public Health Tuberculosis Prevention, Control, and Elimination Program: Recommendations of the Advisory Council for the Elimination of Tuberculosis and the National Tuberculosis Controllers Association. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020;69(7):1–27. doi:10.15585/mmwr.rr6907a1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dasgupta K, Schwartzman K, Marchand R, Tennenbaum TN, Brassard P, Menzies D. Comparison of cost-effectiveness of tuberculosis screening of close contacts and foreign-born populations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162(6):2079–2086. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.162.6.2001111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasaie P, Andrews JR, Kelton WD, Dowdy DW. Timing of tuberculosis transmission and the impact of household contact tracing. An agent-based simulation model. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;189(7):845–852. doi:10.1164/rccm.201310-1846OC.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guzzetta G, Ajelli M, Yang Z, et al. Effectiveness of contact investigations for tuberculosis control in Arkansas. J Theor Biol. 2015;380:238–246. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2015.05.031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anger HA, Proops D, Harris TG, et al. Active case finding and prevention of tuberculosis among a cohort of contacts exposed to infectious tuberculosis cases in New York City. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(9):1287–1295. doi:10.1093/cid/cis029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marks SM, Taylor Z, Qualls NL, Shrestha-Kuwahara RJ, Wilce MA, Nguyen CH. Outcomes of contact investigations of infectious tuberculosis patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162(6):2033–2038. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.162.6.2004022.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris SK, Giroux RJP, Consunji-Araneta R, et al. Epidemiology, clinical features and outcomes of incident tuberculosis in children in Canada in 2013-2016: results of a national surveillance study. Arch Dis Child. 2021;106(12):1165–1170. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2021-322092.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox GJ, Barry SE, Britton WJ, Marks GB. Contact investigation for tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir J. 2013;41(1):140–156. doi:10.1183/09031936.00070812.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moran-Mendoza O, Marion SA, Elwood K, Patrick D, FitzGerald JM. Risk factors for developing tuberculosis: a 12-year follow-up of contacts of tuberculosis cases. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2010;14(9):1112–1119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lobato MN, Royce SE, Mohle-Boetani JC. Yield of source-case and contact investigations in identifying previously undiagnosed childhood tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2003;7(12 Suppl 3):S391–S6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordholm AC, Holm LL, Svensson E, Andersen PH, Johansen IS. Tuberculosis Transmission in Danish Children: A Nationwide Register-based Study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2019;38(4):340–343. doi:10.1097/INF.0000000000002139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Tuberculosis Controllers A, Centers for Disease C, Prevention. Guidelines for the investigation of contacts of persons with infectious tuberculosis. Recommendations from the National Tuberculosis Controllers Association and CDC. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2005;54(RR-15):1–47.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Systematic Screening for Active Tuberculosis: Principles and Recommendations. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Wingfield T, MacPherson P, Cleary P, Ormerod LP. High prevalence of TB disease in contacts of adults with extrapulmonary TB. Thorax. 2018;73(8):785–787. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2017-210202.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melsew YA, Doan TN, Gambhir M, Cheng AC, McBryde E, Trauer JM. Risk factors for infectiousness of patients with tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epidemiol Infect. 2018;146(3):345–353. doi:10.1017/S0950268817003041.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Tuberculosis Guidelines. Accessed October 23, 2021. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng33.
   Google Scholar
• Lohmann EM, Koster BF, Le Cessie S, Kamst-van Agterveld MP, van Soolingen D, Arend SM. Grading of a positive sputum smear and the risk of Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2012;16(11):1477–1484. doi:10.5588/ijtld.12.0129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichler MR, Tuberculosis Epidemiologic Studies Consortium Task Order 2 Team, Khan A, Yuan Y, et al. Duration of Exposure Among Close Contacts of Patients With Infectious Tuberculosis and Risk of Latent Tuberculosis Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(7):1627–1634. doi:10.1093/cid/ciz1044.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey WC, Gerald LB, Kimerling ME, et al. Predictive model to identify positive tuberculosis skin test results during contact investigations. JAMA. 2002;287(8):996–1002. doi:10.1001/jama.287.8.996.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acuna-Villaorduna C, Jones-Lopez EC, Fregona G, et al. Intensity of exposure to pulmonary tuberculosis determines risk of tuberculosis infection and disease. Eur Respir J. 2018;51(1):1701578. doi:10.1183/13993003.01578-2017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aissa K, CG94 Study Group, Madhi F, Ronsin N, et al. Evaluation of a model for efficient screening of tuberculosis contact subjects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177(9):1041–1047. doi:10.1164/rccm.200711-1756OC.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romanowski K, Sobkowiak B, Guthrie JL, Cook VJ, Gardy JL, Johnston JC. Using Whole-genome Sequencing to Determine the Timing of Secondary Tuberculosis in British Columbia, Canada. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73(3):535–537. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa1224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerald LB, Tang S, Bruce F, et al. A decision tree for tuberculosis contact investigation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166(8):1122–1127. doi:10.1164/rccm.200202-124OC.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Migliori GB, Nardell E, Yedilbayev A, et al. Reducing tuberculosis transmission: a consensus document from the World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe. Eur Respir J. 2019;53(6):1900391. doi:10.1183/13993003.00391-2019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts JR, Mason BW, Paranjothy S, Palmer SR. The transmission of tuberculosis in schools involving children 3 to 11 years of age. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(1):82–84. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31823378c9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caley M, Fowler T, Welch S, Wood A. Risk of developing tuberculosis from a school contact: retrospective cohort study, United Kingdom, 2009. Euro Surveill. 2010;15(11):19510.
   Google Scholar
• Schepisi MS, Motta I, Dore S, Costa C, Sotgiu G, Girardi E. Tuberculosis transmission among children and adolescents in schools and other congregate settings: a systematic review. New Microbiol. 2019;41(4):282–290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cinquetti S, Dalmanzio M, Ros E, et al. High rate of transmission in a pulmonary tuberculosis outbreak in a primary school, north-eastern Italy. Euro Surveill. 2019;24(24):1900332. doi:10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2019.24.24.1900332.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in a High School and School-Based Supervision of an Isoniazid-Rifapentine Regimen for Preventing Tuberculosis - Colorado, 2011-2012. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62(39):805–809.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dollner H, Ramm CT, Harstad I, Afset JE, Sagvik E. Risk of developing tuberculosis after brief exposure in Norwegian children: results of a contact investigation. BMJ Open. 2012;2(6):e001816. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001816.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillman A, Berggren I, Bergstrom SE, Wahlgren H, Bennet R. Primary tuberculosis infection in 35 children at a Swedish day care center. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008;27(12):1078–1082. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31817e83f4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crisan A, Wong HY, Johnston JC, et al. Spatio-temporal analysis of tuberculous infection risk among clients of a homeless shelter during an outbreak. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2015;19(9):1033–1038. doi:10.5588/ijtld.14.0957.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muecke C, Isler M, Menzies D, Allard R, Tannenbaum TN, Brassard P. The use of environmental factors as adjuncts to traditional tuberculosis contact investigation. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2006;10(5):530–535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luzzati R, Migliori GB, Zignol M, et al. Children under 5 years are at risk for tuberculosis after occasional contact with highly contagious patients: outbreak from a smear-positive healthcare worker. Eur Respir J. 2017;50(5):1701414. doi:10.1183/13993003.01414-2017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oeltmann JE, Oren E, Haddad MB, et al. Tuberculosis outbreak in marijuana users, Seattle, Washington, 2004. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(7):1156–1159. doi:10.3201/eid1207.051436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godoy P, Grupo de Trabajo de Estudios de Contactos de Tuberculosis de Cataluña, Cayla JA, Carmona G, et al. Smoking in tuberculosis patients increases the risk of infection in their contacts. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2013;17(6):771–776. doi:10.5588/ijtld.12.0696.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh M, Mynak ML, Kumar L, Mathew JL, Jindal SK. Prevalence and risk factors for transmission of infection among children in household contact with adults having pulmonary tuberculosis. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90(6):624–628. doi:10.1136/adc.2003.044255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patra J, Bhatia M, Suraweera W, et al. Exposure to second-hand smoke and the risk of tuberculosis in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 18 observational studies. PLoS Med. 2015;12(6):e1001835; discussion e1001835 doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001835.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates MN, Khalakdina A, Pai M, Chang L, Lessa F, Smith KR. Risk of tuberculosis from exposure to tobacco smoke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(4):335–342. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.4.335.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rea E, Leung T. Available from Available from A cluster of tuberculosis cases linked to smoking: An under-recognized challenge for tuberculosis elimination . Can Commun Dis Rep. 2018;44(3-4):86–90. 2018-03-01doi:10.14745/ccdr.v44i34a03.
   Google Scholar
• New Jersey Medical School Global TB Institute. TB interviewing for contact investigation: a practical resource for the healthcare worker. 2008. https://globaltb.njms.rutgers.edu/products/tbinterviewing.htm. Accessed August 25, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Ospina JE, Orcau À, Millet J-P, Sánchez F, Casals M, Caylà JA. Community health workers improve contact tracing among immigrants with tuberculosis in Barcelona. BMC Public Health. 2012;12(1):158. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-158.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miller WR, Rollnick S. Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change. 3rd ed. New York, USA: Guilford Press; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Hohman M, McMaster F, Woodruff SI. Contact Tracing for COVID-19: The Use of Motivational Interviewing and the Role of Social Work. Clin Soc Work J. 2021;49(4):419–410. doi:10.1007/s10615-021-00802-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faccini M, Cantoni S, Ciconali G, et al. Tuberculosis-related stigma leading to an incomplete contact investigation in a low-incidence country. Epidemiol Infect. 2015;143(13):2841–2848. doi:10.1017/S095026881400394X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook VJ, Shah L, Gardy J, Bourgeois AC. Recommendations on modern contact investigation methods for enhancing tuberculosis control. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2012;16(3):297–305. doi:10.5588/ijtld.11.0350.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center for Disease Control. Epidemiologic Notes and Reports: Crack cocaine use among persons with tuberculosis – Contra Costa County, California, 1987-1990. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1991;40(29):485–489.
   Google Scholar
• Gardy JL, Johnston JC, Ho Sui SJ, et al. Whole-genome sequencing and social-network analysis of a tuberculosis outbreak. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(8):730–739. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1003176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asghar RJ, Patlan DE, Miner MC, et al. Limited utility of name-based tuberculosis contact investigations among persons using illicit drugs: results of an outbreak investigation. J Urban Health. 2009;86(5):776–780. doi:10.1007/s11524-009-9378-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duarte R, Neto M, Carvalho A, Barros H. Improving tuberculosis contact tracing: the role of evaluations in the home and workplace. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2012;16(1):55–59. doi:10.5588/ijtld.10.0511.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mangura BT, Napolitano EC, Passannante MR, McDonald RJ, Reichman LB. Mycobacterium tuberculosis miniepidemic in a church gospel choir. Chest. 1998;113(1):234–237. doi:10.1378/chest.113.1.234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tian Y, Osgood ND, Al-Azem A, Hoeppner VH. Evaluating the effectiveness of contact tracing on tuberculosis outcomes in Saskatchewan using individual-based modeling. Health Educ Behav. 2013;40(1_suppl):98S–110S. doi:10.1177/1090198113493910.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• The Homelessness Services Association of BC, Urban Matters, BC Non-Profit Housing Association. 2018 Report on Homeless Counts in B.C. 2018. https://www.bchousing.org/publications/2018-BC-Homeless-Counts.pdf. Accessed August 17, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Public Health Ontario, Berenbaum E. Homelessness and Health Outcomes: What are the associations?. 2019. https://www.publichealthontario.ca/-/media/documents/E/2019/eb-homelessness-health.pdf. Accessed August 17, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Khan K, Rea E, McDermaid C, et al. Active tuberculosis among homeless persons, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 1998-2007. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17(3):357–365. doi:10.3201/eid1703.100833.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan de Bibiana J, Rossi C, Rivest P, et al. Tuberculosis and homelessness in Montreal: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Public Health. 2011;11:833. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-833.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deiss RG, Rodwell TC, Garfein RS. Tuberculosis and illicit drug use: review and update. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48(1):72–82. doi:10.1086/594126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraser Health Health Equity and Population Health Unit. Recommendations for TB Management among Populations Experiencing Homelessness. 2020. https://www.fraserhealth.ca/-/media/Project/FraserHealth/FraserHealth/Health-Professionals/Clinical-resources/resources-for-community-organizations/20_11_17--Report-on-TB-Research-for-Homeless-Outbreak.pdf. Accessed August 17, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Baxter S, Goyder E, Chambers D, Johnson M, Preston L, Booth A. Interventions to improve contact tracing for tuberculosis in specific groups and in wider populations: an evidence synthesis. Health Serv Deliv Res. 2017;5(1):1–102. doi:10.3310/hsdr05010.
   Google Scholar
• Tibbetts KK, Ottoson RA, Tsukayama DT. Public Health Response to Tuberculosis Outbreak among Persons Experiencing Homelessness, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, 2017-2018. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020;26(3):420–426. doi:10.3201/eid2603.190643.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li J, Driver CR, Munsiff SS, Fujiwara PI. Finding contacts of homeless tuberculosis patients in New York City. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2003;7(12 Suppl 3):S397–S404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munn MS, Duchin JS, Kay M, Pecha M, Thibault CS, Narita M. Analysis of risk factors for tuberculous infection following exposure at a homeless shelter. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2015;19(5):570–575. doi:10.5588/ijtld.14.0648.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yun LW, Reves RR, Reichler MR, et al. Outcomes of contact investigation among homeless persons with infectious tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2003;7(12 Suppl 3):S405–S11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heuvelings CC, de Vries SG, Greve PF, et al. Effectiveness of interventions for diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis in hard-to-reach populations in countries of low and medium tuberculosis incidence: a systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis. 2017;17(5):e144–e158. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30532-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton K, Tolfree R, Mytton J. A systematic review of active case-finding strategies for tuberculosis in homeless populations. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2018;22(10):1135–1144. doi:10.5588/ijtld.17.0784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jit M, Find and Treat Evaluation Team, Stagg HR, Aldridge RW, et al. Dedicated outreach service for hard to reach patients with tuberculosis in London: observational study and economic evaluation. BMJ. 2011;343:d5376 doi:10.1136/bmj.d5376.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lofy KH, McElroy PD, Lake L, et al. Outbreak of tuberculosis in a homeless population involving multiple sites of transmission. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2006;10(6):683–689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paquette K, Cheng MP, Kadatz MJ, Cook VJ, Chen W, Johnston JC. Chest radiography for active tuberculosis case finding in the homeless: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2014;18(10):1231–1236. doi:10.5588/ijtld.14.0105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen SG, Olsen NW, Seersholm N, et al. Screening for TB by sputum culture in high-risk groups in Copenhagen, Denmark: a novel and promising approach. Thorax. 2015;70(10):979–983. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2015-207162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotila SM, Hallstrom Jansen PL, Helbling N, Abubakar P. I. Systematic review on tuberculosis transmission on aircraft and update of the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control risk assessment guidelines for tuberculosis transmitted on aircraft (RAGIDA-TB). Euro Surveill. 2016;21(4):30114. doi:10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2016.21.4.30114.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Tuberculosis and Air Travel: guidelines for Prevention and Control. 3rd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Mohr O, Askar M, Schink S, Eckmanns T, Krause G, Poggensee G. Evidence for airborne infectious disease transmission in public ground transport–a literature review. Euro Surveill. 2012;17(35):20255. https://doi.org/10.2807/ese.17.35.20255-en
   Google Scholar
• Phillips L, Carlile J, Smith D. Epidemiology of a tuberculosis outbreak in a rural Missouri high school. Pediatrics. 2004;113(6):e514–e519. doi:10.1542/peds.113.6.e514.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell K, Lamb MM, Sisk MK, et al. Passenger contact investigation associated with a transport driver with pulmonary tuberculosis. Public Health Rep. 2012;127(2):202–207. doi:10.1177/003335491212700209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohr O, Schink SB, Eckmanns T, Krause G. Tuberculosis in public ground transport - is there enough evidence to justify contact tracing? Expert Rev anti Infect Ther. 2015;13(1):1–3. doi:10.1586/14787210.2015.985656.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichler MR, Reves R, Bur S, et al. Evaluation of investigations conducted to detect and prevent transmission of tuberculosis. JAMA. 2002;287(8):991–995. doi:10.1001/jama.287.8.991.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenbeis L, Gao Z, Heffernan C, Yacoub W, Long R, Verma G. Contact investigation outcomes of Canadian-born adults with tuberculosis in Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations in Alberta. Can J Public Health. 2016;107(1):e106–e111. doi:10.17269/cjph.107.5255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borgen K, Koster B, Meijer H, Kuyvenhoven V, van der Sande M, Cobelens F. Evaluation of a large-scale tuberculosis contact investigation in the Netherlands. Eur Respir J. 2008;32(2):419–425. doi:10.1183/09031936.00136607.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auld SC, Shah NS, Cohen T, Martinson NA, Gandhi NR. Where is tuberculosis transmission happening? Insights from the literature, new tools to study transmission and implications for the elimination of tuberculosis. Respirology. 2018;23(9):807–817. doi:10.1111/resp.13333.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doroshenko A, Pepperell CS, Heffernan C, et al. Epidemiological and genomic determinants of tuberculosis outbreaks in First Nations communities in Canada. BMC Med. 2018;16(1):128. doi:10.1186/s12916-018-1112-9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mehaffy C, Guthrie JL, Alexander DC, Stuart R, Rea E, Jamieson FB. Marked microevolution of a unique Mycobacterium tuberculosis strain in 17 years of ongoing transmission in a high risk population. PLoS One. 2014;9(11):e112928. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0112928.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee RS, Radomski N, Proulx JF, et al. Reemergence and amplification of tuberculosis in the Canadian arctic. J Infect Dis. 2015;211(12):1905–1914. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiv011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee RS, Radomski N, Proulx JF, et al. Population genomics of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the Inuit. Proc Natl Acad Sci Usa. 2015;112(44):13609–13614. doi:10.1073/pnas.1507071112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alvarez GG, Zwerling AA, Duncan C, et al. Molecular Epidemiology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis To Describe the Transmission Dynamics Among Inuit Residing in Iqaluit Nunavut Using Whole-Genome Sequencing. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;72(12):2187–2195. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guthrie JL, Strudwick L, Roberts B, et al. Whole genome sequencing for improved understanding of Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission in a remote circumpolar region. Epidemiol Infect. 2019;147:e188. doi:10.1017/S0950268819000670.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen D, Proulx JF, Westley J, Thibert L, Dery S, Behr MA. Tuberculosis in the Inuit community of Quebec, Canada. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;168(11):1353–1357. doi:10.1164/rccm.200307-910OC.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wyllie DH, Davidson JA, Grace Smith E, et al. A Quantitative Evaluation of MIRU-VNTR Typing Against Whole-Genome Sequencing for Identifying Mycobacterium tuberculosis Transmission: A Prospective Observational Cohort Study. EBioMedicine. 2018;34:122–130. doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2018.07.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jajou R, de Neeling A, van Hunen R, et al. Epidemiological links between tuberculosis cases identified twice as efficiently by whole genome sequencing than conventional molecular typing: A population-based study. PLoS One. 2018;13(4):e0195413. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0195413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant JM, Harris SR, Parkhill J, et al. Whole-genome sequencing to establish relapse or re-infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a retrospective observational study. Lancet Respir Med. 2013;1(10):786–792. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(13)70231-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guerra-Assuncao JA, Houben RM, Crampin AC, et al. Recurrence due to relapse or reinfection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a whole-genome sequencing approach in a large, population-based cohort with a high HIV infection prevalence and active follow-up. J Infect Dis. 2015;211(7):1154–1163. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiu574.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witney AA, RIFAQUIN Study Team, Bateson AL, Jindani A, et al. Use of whole-genome sequencing to distinguish relapse from reinfection in a completed tuberculosis clinical trial. BMC Med. 2017;15(1):71. doi:10.1186/s12916-017-0834-4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roetzer A, Diel R, Kohl TA, et al. Whole genome sequencing versus traditional genotyping for investigation of a Mycobacterium tuberculosis outbreak: a longitudinal molecular epidemiological study. PLoS Med. 2013;10(2):e1001387. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyler AD, Randell E, Baikie M, et al. Application of whole genome sequence analysis to the study of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Nunavut, Canada. PLoS One. 2017;12(10):e0185656. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0185656.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker TM, Cruz ALG, Peto TE, Smith EG, Esmail H, Crook DW. Tuberculosis is changing. Lancet Infect Dis. 2017;17(4):359–361. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(17)30123-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Whole Genome Sequencing. https://www.cdc.gov/tb/programs/genotyping/Tuberculosis_WGS_Training_Module.pdf. Accessed August 1, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Allix-Béguec C, CRyPTIC Consortium and the 100,000 Genomes Project, Arandjelovic I, Bi L, Beckert P, Bonnet M, Bradley P, Cabibbe AM. Prediction of susceptibility to first-line tuberculosis drugs by DNA sequencing. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(15):1403–1415. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1800474.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shea J, Halse TA, Lapierre P, et al. Comprehensive Whole-Genome Sequencing and Reporting of Drug Resistance Profiles on Clinical Cases of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in New York State. J Clin Microbiol. 2017;55(6):1871–1882. doi:10.1128/JCM.00298-17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pankhurst LJ, COMPASS-TB Study Group, Del Ojo Elias C, Votintseva AA, et al. Rapid, comprehensive, and affordable mycobacterial diagnosis with whole-genome sequencing: a prospective study. Lancet Respir Med. 2016;4(1):49–58. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(15)00466-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez E, Bustamante A, Menon R, et al. Whole-genome sequencing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis for rapid diagnostics: feasibility of a decentralised model. Lancet Respir Med. 2016;4(4):e13-4–e14. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(16)00092-8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Andre M, Ijaz K, Tillinghast JD, et al. Transmission network analysis to complement routine tuberculosis contact investigations. Am J Public Health. 2007;97(3):470–477. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.071936.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munang ML, Browne C, Evans JT, et al. Programmatic utility of tuberculosis cluster investigation using a social network approach in Birmingham, United Kingdom. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2016;20(10):1300–1305. doi:10.5588/ijtld.16.0161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Packer S, Green C, Brooks-Pollock E, Chaintarli K, Harrison S, Beck CR. Social network analysis and whole genome sequencing in a cohort study to investigate TB transmission in an educational setting. BMC Infect Dis. 2019;19(1):154. doi:10.1186/s12879-019-3734-8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mitruka K, Oeltmann JE, Ijaz K, Haddad MB. Tuberculosis outbreak investigations in the United States, 2002-2008. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17(3):425–431. doi:10.3201/eid1703.101550.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maguire H, Brailsford S, Carless J, et al. Large outbreak of isoniazid-monoresistant tuberculosis in London, 1995 to 2006: case-control study and recommendations. Euro Surveill. 2011;16(13):19830.
   Google Scholar
• Powell KM, VanderEnde DS, Holland DP, et al. Outbreak of Drug-Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis Among Homeless People in Atlanta, Georgia, 2008-2015. Public Health Rep. 2017;132(2):231–240. doi:10.1177/0033354917694008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frieden TR, Fujiwara PI, Washko RM, Hamburg MA. Tuberculosis in New York City-turning the tide. N Engl J Med. 1995;333(4):229–233. doi:10.1056/NEJM199507273330406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng JM, Hiscoe L, Pollock SL, Hasselback P, Gardy JL, Parker R. A clonal outbreak of tuberculosis in a homeless population in the interior of British Columbia, Canada, 2008-2015. Epidemiol Infect. 2015;143(15):3220–3226. doi:10.1017/S0950268815000825.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalil NJ, Kryzanowski JA, Mercer NJ, Ellis E, Jamieson F. Tuberculosis outbreak in a long-term care facility. Can J Public Health. 2013;104(1):e28-32–e32. doi:10.1007/BF03405650.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roycroft E, Fitzgibbon MM, Kelly DM, et al. The largest prison outbreak of TB in Western Europe investigated using whole-genome sequencing. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2021;25(6):491–497. doi:10.5588/ijtld.21.0033.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gandhi NR, Weissman D, Moodley P, et al. Nosocomial transmission of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in a rural hospital in South Africa. J Infect Dis. 2013;207(1):9–17. doi:10.1093/infdis/jis631.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noppert GA, Yang Z, Clarke P, Davidson P, Ye W, Wilson ML. Contextualizing tuberculosis risk in time and space: comparing time-restricted genotypic case clusters and geospatial clusters to evaluate the relative contribution of recent transmission to incidence of TB using nine years of case data from Michigan, USA. Ann Epidemiol. 2019;40:21–27 e3. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2019.10.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center for Disease Control. Self-study modules on Tuberculosis: Module 9 outbreak detection and response. 2014. https://www.cdc.gov/tb/education/ssmodules/pdfs/module9.pdf. Accessed September 3, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Hatherell HA, Didelot X, Pollock SL, et al. Declaring a tuberculosis outbreak over with genomic epidemiology. Microb Genom. 2016;2(5):e000060 doi:10.1099/mgen.0.000060.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castilla J, Palmera R, Navascues A, et al. Population-based contact investigation of a cluster of tuberculosis cases in a small village. Epidemiol Infect. 2009;137(10):1426–1435. doi:10.1017/S0950268809002246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta RK, Lipman M, Story A, et al. Active case finding and treatment adherence in risk groups in the tuberculosis pre-elimination era. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2018;22(5):479–487. doi:10.5588/ijtld.17.0767.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerr EM, Vonnahme LA, Goswami ND. Impact of Targeted Local Interventions on Tuberculosis Awareness and Screening Among Persons Experiencing Homelessness During a Large Tuberculosis Outbreak in Atlanta, Georgia, 2015-2016. Public Health Rep. 2020;135(1_suppl):90S–99S. doi:10.1177/0033354920932644.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs S, Warman A, Richardson R, et al. The tuberculin skin test is unreliable in school children BCG-vaccinated in infancy and at low risk of tuberculosis infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30(9):754–758. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31821b8f54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pease C, Zwerling A, Mallick R, et al. The latent tuberculosis infection cascade of care in Iqaluit, Nunavut, 2012-2016. BMC Infect Dis. 2019;19(1):890. doi:10.1186/s12879-019-4557-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rennert-May E, Hansen E, Zadeh T, Krinke V, Houston S, Cooper R. A Step toward Tuberculosis Elimination in a Low-Incidence Country: Successful Diagnosis and Treatment of Latent Tuberculosis Infection in a Refugee Clinic. Can Respir J. 2016;2016:7980869. doi:10.1155/2016/7980869.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warrington P, Tyrrell G, Choy K, Eisenbeis L, Long R, Cooper R. Prevalence of latent tuberculosis infection in Syrian refugees to Canada. Can J Public Health. 2018;109(1):8–14. doi:10.17269/s41997-018-0028-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minodier P, Lamarre V, Carle ME, Blais D, Ovetchkine P, Tapiero B. Evaluation of a school-based program for diagnosis and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in immigrant children. J Infect Public Health. 2010;3(2):67–75. doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2010.02.001.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lim R, Jarand J, Field SK, Fisher D. Is Universal Screening Necessary? Incidence of Tuberculosis among Tibetan Refugees Arriving in Calgary, Alberta. Can Respir J. 2016;2016:8249843. doi:10.1155/2016/8249843.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Correctional Service Canada. Infectious Disease Surveillance in Canadian Federal Penitentiaries 2007–2008. 2008. https://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/publications/005007-7602-eng.shtml. Accessed October 4, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Romanowski K, Rose C, Cook VJ, et al. Effectiveness of Latent TB Screening and Treatment in People Initiating Dialysis in British Columbia, Canada. Can J Kidney Health Dis. 2020;7:205435812093710. doi:10.1177/2054358120937104.
   Google Scholar
• Gitman M, Vu J, Nguyen T, Chen C, Rotstein C. Evaluation of a routine screening program with tuberculin skin testing on rates of detection of latent tuberculosis infection and prevention of active tuberculosis in patients with multiple myeloma at a Canadian cancer centre. Curr Oncol. 2020;27(3):e246–e250. doi:10.3747/co.27.5577.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgia Department of Health. Guidelines for Preventing and Controlling Tuberculosis in Atlanta Homeless Housing Facilities. 2016. https://dph.georgia.gov/sites/dph.georgia.gov/files/TB%20guidelines_5.26.16_EK_FINAL_v2.pdf. Accessed August 27, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Dehghani K, Lan Z, Li P, et al. Determinants of tuberculosis trends in six Indigenous populations of the USA, Canada, and Greenland from 1960 to 2014: a population-based study. Lancet Public Health. 2018;3(3):e133–e142. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30002-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• San Francisco Department of Public Health. San Francisco Shelter Client TB Screening Guidelines. Accessed August 20 2021. https://www.sfcdcp.org/tb-control/tuberculosis-information-for-medical-providers/shelter-client-screening-guidelines/.
   Google Scholar
• Uppal A, Nsengiyumva NP, Signor C, et al. Active screening for tuberculosis in high-incidence Inuit communities in Canada: a cost-effectiveness analysis. CMAJ. 2021;193(43):E1652–E1659. doi:10.1503/cmaj.210447.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar