Analysis of the temporal and spatial variability of whale shark (Rhincodon typus) aggregation in the South Ari Marine Protected Area, Maldives, Indian Ocean

References

• Aca EQ, Schmidt JV. 2011. Revised size limit for viability in the wild: Neonatal and young of the year whale sharks identified in the Philippines. Asia Life Sciences 20(2):361–367.
   Google Scholar
• Allen HL, Stewart BD, McClean CJ, Hancock J, Rees R. 2021. Anthropogenic injury and site fidelity in Maldivian whale sharks (Rhincodon typus). Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystem 1–14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson RC, Adam MS, Goes JI. 2011. From monsoons to mantas: Seasonal distribution of Manta alfredi in the Maldives. Fisheries Oceanography 20(2):104–113. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2419.2011.00571.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson RC, Ahmed H. 1993. The shark fisheries of the Maldives. Male, Maldives: FAO, Rome, and Ministry of Fisheries.
   Google Scholar
• Araujo G, Snow S, So CL, Labaja J, Murray R, Colucci A, Ponzo A. 2017. Population structure, residency patterns and movements of whale sharks in Southern Leyte, Philippines: Results from dedicated photo‐ID and citizen science. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 27(1):237–252. DOI: 10.1002/aqc.2636.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arroyo GM, de la Cruz A, Delgado D. 2020. How adequately are the critically endangered Balearic Shearwaters protected by the Special Protection Areas (SPAs) for seabirds? A case study in the Gulf of Cadiz. Global Ecology and Conservation 21:e00861. DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00861.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Betzler C, Hübscher C, Lindhorst S, Lüdmann T, Reijmer JJ, Braga JC. 2016. Lowstand wedges in carbonate platform slopes (Quaternary, Maldives, Indian Ocean). The Depositional Record 2(2):196–207. DOI: 10.1002/dep2.21.
   Google Scholar
• Birkmanis CA, Partridge JC, Simmons LW, Heupel MR, Sequeira AM. 2020. Shark conservation hindered by lack of habitat protection. Global Ecology and Conservation 21:e00862. DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00862.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boldrocchi G, Bettinetti R. 2019. Whale shark foraging on baitfish off Djibouti. Marine Biodiversity 49(4):2013–2016. DOI: 10.1007/s12526-018-00934-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boldrocchi G, Monticelli D, Butti L, Omar M, Bettinetti R. 2020. First concurrent assessment of elemental-and organic-contaminant loads in skin biopsies of whale sharks from Djibouti. Science of the Total Environment 722:137841.
   Google Scholar
• Breen P, Posen P, Righton D. 2015. Temperate marine protected areas and highly mobile fish: A review. Ocean & Coastal Management 105:75–83. DOI: 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2014.12.021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cagua EF, Collins N, Hancock J, Rees R. 2014. Whale shark economics: A valuation of wildlife tourism in South Ari Atoll, Maldives. PeerJ 2:e515. DOI: 10.7717/peerj.515.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cárdenas‐Palomo N, Herrera‐Silveira J, Velázquez‐Abunader I, Reyes O, Ordoñez U. 2015. Distribution and feeding habitat characterization of whale sharks Rhincodon typus in a protected area in the north Caribbean Sea. Journal of Fish Biology 86(2):668–686. DOI: 10.1111/jfb.12589.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cárdenas-Palomo N, Noreña-Barroso E, Herrera-Silveira J, Galván-Magaña F, Hacohen-Domené A. 2018. Feeding habits of the whale shark (Rhincodon typus) inferred by fatty acid profiles in the northern Mexican Caribbean. Environmental Biology of Fishes 101(11):1599–1612. DOI: 10.1007/s10641-018-0806-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cochran JE, Braun CD, Cagua EF, Campbell Jr MF, Hardenstine RS, Kattan A,Priest MA, Sinclair-Taylor TH, Skomal GB, Sultan S, Sun. 2019. Multi-method assessment of whale shark (Rhincodon typus) residency, distribution, and dispersal behavior at an aggregation site in the Red Sea. PloS One 14(9):e0222285. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222285.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cochran JEM, Hardenstine RS, Braun CD, Skomal GB, Thorrold SR, Xu K,Genton MG, Berumen ML. 2016. Population structure of a whale shark Rhincodon typus aggregation in the Red Sea. Journal of Fish Biology 89(3):1570–1582. DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13054.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colman JG. 1997. A review of the biology and ecology of the whale shark. Journal of Fish Biology 51(6):1219–1234. DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.1997.tb01138.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Compagno LJ. 2001. Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date, vol 2. Bullhead, mackerel and carpet sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes). FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes 1:viii+-1.
   Google Scholar
• Copping JP, Stewart BD, McClean CJ, Hancock J, Rees R. 2018. Does bathymetry drive coastal whale shark (Rhincodon typus) aggregations? PeerJ 6:e4904. DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4904.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidson LN, Dulvy NK. 2017. Global marine protected areas to prevent extinctions. Nature Ecology & Evolution 1(2):1–6. DOI: 10.1038/s41559-016-0040.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donati G, Rees RG, Hancock JW, Jenkins TK, Shameel I, Hindle K, Cagua EF. 2016. New insights into the South Ariatoll whale shark, Rhincodon typus, aggregation. QScience Proceedings, The 4th International Whale Shark Conference, May 2016, Volume 2016, 16.
   Google Scholar
• Dunshea G, Groom R, Griffiths AD. 2020. Observer performance and the effect of ambiguous taxon identification for fixed strip-width dugong aerial surveys. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 526:151338. DOI: 10.1016/j.jembe.2020.151338.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eguchi T, Gerrodette T, Pitman RL, Seminoff JA, Dutton PH. 2007. At-sea density and abundance estimates of the olive ridley turtle Lepidochelys olivacea in the eastern tropical Pacific. Endangered Species Research 3(2):191–203. DOI: 10.3354/esr003191.
   Google Scholar
• EPA. 2019. List of stakeholder meetings held to identify management measures for South Ari Marine Protected Area (SAMPA).
   Google Scholar
• Escalle L, Speed CW, Meekan MG, White WT, Babcock RC, Pillans RD, Huveneers C. 2015. Restricted movements and mangrove dependency of the nervous shark Carcharhinus cautus in nearshore coastal waters. Journal of Fish Biology 87(2):323–341. DOI: 10.1111/jfb.12724.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans PG, Hammond PS. 2004. Monitoring cetaceans in European waters. Mammal Review 34(1‐2):131–156. DOI: 10.1046/j.0305-1838.2003.00027.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FAO. 2007. Report and documentation of the expert workshop on marine protected areas and fisheries management: Review of issues and considerations. Rome, 12–14 June 2006. FAO Fisheries Report. No. 825. Rome: FAO. p. 332.
   Google Scholar
• Fürstenau J, Lindhorst S, Betzler C, Hübscher C. 2010. Submerged reef terraces of the Maldives (Indian Ocean). Geo-Marine Letters 30(5):511–515. DOI: 10.1007/s00367-009-0174-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallagher AJ, Hammerschlag N. 2011. Global shark currency: The distribution, frequency, and economic value of shark ecotourism. Current Issues in Tourism 14(8):797–812. DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2011.585227.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gischler E. 2006. Sedimentation on Rasdhoo and Ari Atolls, Maldives, Indian Ocean. Facies 52(3):341–360. DOI: 10.1007/s10347-005-0031-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gischler E, Storz D, Schmitt D. 2014. Sizes, shapes, and patterns of coral reefs in the Maldives, Indian Ocean: The influence of wind, storms, and precipitation on a major tropical carbonate platform. Carbonates and Evaporites 29(1):73–87. DOI: 10.1007/s13146-013-0176-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham RT, Roberts CM, Smart JC. 2005. Diving behaviour of whale sharks in relation to a predictable food pulse. Journal of the Royal Society Interface 3(6):109–116. DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2005.0082.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grüss A, Kaplan DM, Guénette S, Roberts CM, Botsford LW. 2011. Consequences of adult and juvenile movement for marine protected areas. Biological Conservation 144(2):692–702. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2010.12.015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris JL, McGregor PK, Oates Y, Stevens GM. 2020. Gone with the wind: Seasonal distribution and habitat use by the reef manta ray (Mobula alfredi) in the Maldives, implications for conservation. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 30(8):1649–1664. DOI: 10.1002/aqc.3350.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey-Carroll J, Stewart JD, Carroll D, Mohamed B, Shameel I, Zareer IH, Araujo G, Rees R. 2021. The impact of injury on apparent survival of whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) in South Ari Atoll Marine Protected Area, Maldives. Scientific Reports 11(1):937. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-79101-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haupt PW, Lombard AT, Goodman PS, Harris JM. 2017. Accounting for spatiotemporal dynamics in conservation planning for coastal fish in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Biological Conservation 209:289–303. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2017.02.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heupel MR, Knip DM, Simpfendorfer CA, Dulvy NK. 2014. Sizing up the ecological role of sharks as predators. Marine Ecology Progress Series 495:291–298. DOI: 10.3354/meps10597.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ibarra-García EC, Ortiz M, Ríos-Jara E, Cupul-Magaña AL, Hernández-Flores Á, Rodríguez-Zaragoza FA. 2017. The functional trophic role of whale shark (Rhincodon typus) in the northern Mexican Caribbean: Network analysis and ecosystem development. Hydrobiologia 792(1):121–135. DOI: 10.1007/s10750-016-3049-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ketchum JT, Galván-Magaña F, Klimley AP. 2013. Segregation and foraging ecology of whale sharks, Rhincodon typus, in the southwestern Gulf of California. Environmental Biology of Fishes 96(6):779–795. DOI: 10.1007/s10641-012-0071-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li W, Wang Y, Norman B. 2012. A preliminary survey of whale shark Rhincodon typus catch and trade in China: An emerging crisis. Journal of Fish Biology 80(5):1608–1618. DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2012.03250.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieber L, Hall G, Hall J, Berrow S, Johnston E, Gubili C,Sarginson J, Francis M, Duffy C, Wintner SP, Doherty PD. 2020. Spatio-temporal genetic tagging of a cosmopolitan planktivorous shark provides insight to gene flow, temporal variation and site-specific re-encounters. Scientific Reports 10(1):1–17. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58086-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKeracher T, Diedrich A, Simpfendorfer CA. 2019. Sharks, rays and marine protected areas: A critical evaluation of current perspectives. Fish and Fisheries 20(2):255–267. DOI: 10.1111/faf.12337.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meekan MG, Jarman SN, McLean C, Schultz MB. 2009. DNA evidence of whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) feeding on red crab (Gecarcoidea natalis) larvae at Christmas Island, Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research 60(6):607–609. DOI: 10.1071/MF08254.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Motta PJ, Maslanka M, Hueter RE, Davis RL, De la Parra R, Mulvany SL, Habegger ML. 2010. Feeding anatomy, filter-feeding rate, and diet of whale sharks Rhincodon typus during surface ram filter feeding off the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Zoology 113(4):199–212. DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2009.12.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norse EA. 2010. Ecosystem-based spatial planning and management of marine fisheries: Why and how? Bulletin of Marine Science 86(2):179–195.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry CT, Figueiredo J, Vaudo JJ, Hancock J, Rees R, Shivji M. 2018. Comparing length-measurement methods and estimating growth parameters of free-swimming whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) near the South Ari Atoll, Maldives. Marine & Freshwater Research 69(10):1487–1495. DOI: 10.1071/MF17393.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierce SJ, Norman B. 2016. Rhincodon typus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, e-T19488A2365291.
   Google Scholar
• Quiros AL. 2007. Tourist compliance to a Code of Conduct and the resulting effects on whale shark (Rhincodon typus) behavior in Donsol, Philippines. Fisheries Research 84(1):102–108. DOI: 10.1016/j.fishres.2006.11.017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasheed AR, Abdulla A. 2020. Evaluating stakeholder participatory processes in policy development for Marine Protected Areas. Marine Policy 112:103737. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpol.2019.103737.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasheed AR, Abdulla A, Zakariyya NI. 2016. Vulnerability of different types of fishers to potential implementation of a management plan in a Marine Protected Area (MPA) in the Maldives. Marine Policy 74:195–204. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpol.2016.09.029.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reid JB, Evans PG, Northridge SP, editors. 2003. Atlas of cetacean distribution in north-west European waters. Joint Nature Conservation Committee. Peterborough, United Kingdom.
   Google Scholar
• Rigby CL, Simpfendorfer CA, Cornish A. 2019. A practical guide to effective design and management of MPAs for sharks and rays. Gland, Switzerland: WWF.
   Google Scholar
• Riley MJ, Hale MS, Harman A, Rees RG. 2010. Analysis of whale shark Rhincodon typus aggregations near South Ari atoll, Maldives Archipelago. Aquatic Biology 8(2):145–150. DOI: 10.3354/ab00215.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson DP, Jaidah MY, Jabado RW, Lee-Brooks K, El-Din NMN, Malki AAA, Elmeer K. 2013. Whale sharks, Rhincodon typus, aggregate around offshore platforms in Qatari waters of the Arabian Gulf to feed on fish spawn. PLoS One 8(3):e58255. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058255.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rohner CA, Pierce SJ, Marshall AD, Weeks SJ, Bennett MB, Richardson AJ. 2013. Trends in sightings and environmental influences on a coastal aggregation of manta rays and whale sharks. Marine Ecology Progress Series 482:153–168. DOI: 10.3354/meps10290.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowat D. 2007. Occurrence of whale shark (Rhincodon typus) in the Indian Ocean: A case for regional conservation. Fisheries Research 84(1):96–101. DOI: 10.1016/j.fishres.2006.11.016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowat D, Brooks KS. 2012. A review of the biology, fisheries and conservation of the whale shark Rhincodon typus. Journal of Fish Biology 80(5):1019–1056. DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2012.03252.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanzogni RL, Meekan MG, Meeuwig JJ. 2015. Multi-year impacts of ecotourism on whale shark (Rhincodon typus) visitation at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia. PloS One 10(9):e0127345. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt JV, Schmidt CL, Ozer F, Ernst RE, Feldheim KA, Ashley MV, Levine M. 2009. Low genetic differentiation across three major ocean populations of the whale shark, Rhincodon typus. PloS One 4(4):e4988. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0004988.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sequeira A, Mellin C, Rowat D, Meekan MG, Bradshaw CJ. 2012. Ocean‐scale prediction of whale shark distribution. Diversity & Distributions 18(5):504–518. DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00853.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sequeira AM, Mellin C, Delean S, Meekan MG, Bradshaw CJ. 2013. Spatial and temporal predictions of inter-decadal trends in Indian Ocean whale sharks. Marine Ecology Progress Series 478:185–195. DOI: 10.3354/meps10166.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sequeira AM, Mellin C, Floch L, Williams PG, Bradshaw CJ. 2014a. Inter-ocean asynchrony in whale shark occurrence patterns. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 450:21–29. DOI: 10.1016/j.jembe.2013.10.019.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sequeira AM, Mellin C, Fordham DA, Meekan MG, Bradshaw CJ. 2014b. Predicting current and future global distributions of whale sharks. Global Change Biology 20(3):778–789. DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12343.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sims DW, Southall EJ, Tarling GA, Metcalfe JD. 2005. Habitat‐specific normal and reverse diel vertical migration in the plankton‐feeding basking shark. Journal of Animal Ecology 74(4):755–761. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2005.00971.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sleeman JC, Meekan MG, Wilson SG, Polovina JJ, Stevens JD, Boggs GS, Bradshaw CJ. 2010. To go or not to go with the flow: Environmental influences on whale shark movement patterns. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 390(2):84–98. DOI: 10.1016/j.jembe.2010.05.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Speed CW, Meekan MG, Rowat D, Pierce SJ, Marshall AD, Bradshaw CJ. 2008. Scarring patterns and relative mortality rates of Indian Ocean whale sharks. Journal of Fish Biology 72(6):1488–1503. DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2008.01810.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens G, Fernando D, Ender I. 2015. Submission of information on mobulid species in support of the Northeast (Dubai) and Northwest (Colombo) Indian Ocean EBSA workshops. UNEP/CBD/EBSA/WS/2015/1/2, 16 March.
   Google Scholar
• Thums M, Meekan M, Stevens J, Wilson S, Polovina J. 2013. Evidence for behavioural thermoregulation by the world’s largest fish. Journal of the Royal Society Interface 10(78):20120477. DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2012.0477.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trujillo-Córdova JA, Palomo NC, Herrera EM, Mendoza OR. 2016. Whale shark behavior with swimmers and boats present during tourism activities in the northern Mexican Caribbean. In The 4th International Whale Shark Conference. Doha (Qatar): Hamad bin Khalifa University Press (HBKU Press), May. Vol. 2016, No. 2, p. 63.
   Google Scholar
• Webb A, Durinck J. 1992. Counting birds from ship. Manual for aeroplane and ship surveys of waterfowl and seabirds. IWRB Special Publication 19:24–37.
   Google Scholar
• West CD, Dytham C, Righton D, Pitchford JW. 2009. Preventing overexploitation of migratory fish stocks: The efficacy of marine protected areas in a stochastic environment. ICES Journal of Marine Science 66(9):1919–1930. DOI: 10.1093/icesjms/fsp159.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitehead DA, Murillo-Cisneros D, Elorriaga-Verplancken FR, Hacohen-Domené A, De La Parra R, Gonzalez-Armas R, Galvan-Magaña F. 2020. Stable isotope assessment of whale sharks across two ocean basins: Gulf of California and the Mexican Caribbean. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 527:151359. DOI: 10.1016/j.jembe.2020.151359.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson SG, Taylor G, Pearce AF. 2001. The seasonal aggregation of whale sharks at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia: Currents, migrations and the El Nino/Southern Oscillation. Biology of Fishes 61(1):1–11. DOI: 10.1023/A:1011069914753.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmerhackel JS, Kragt ME, Rogers AA, Ali K, Meekan MG. 2019. Evidence of increased economic benefits from shark-diving tourism in the Maldives. Marine Policy 100:21–26. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpol.2018.11.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar