Role of electrochemical processes in the extraction of metals and alloys – a review

References

• Abbasalizadeh A, Malfliet A, Seetharaman S, Sietsma J, Yang Y. 2017. Electrochemical extraction of rare earth metals in molten fluorides: conversion of rare earth oxides into rare earth fluorides using fluoride additives. J Sustainable Metallurgy. 3(4):627–637. doi:10.1007/s40831-017-0120-x.
   Google Scholar
• Abbasalizadeh A, Seetharaman S, Venkatesan P, Sietsma J, Yang Y. 2019. Use of iron reactive anode in electrowinning of neodymium from neodymium oxide. Electrochim Acta. 310:146–152. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2019.03.161.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alam MS, Tanaka M, Koyama K, Oishi T, Lee J-C. 2007. Electrolyte purification in energy-saving monovalent copper electrowinning processes. Hydrometallurgy. 87:36–44. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2006.12.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bewer G, Debrodt H, Herbst H. 1982. Titanium for electrochemical processes. JOM. 34(1):37–41. doi:10.1007/BF03337977.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boldt JR, Queneau PE. 1966. Winning of nickel. London: Mathuuen. Section C, Part III.
   Google Scholar
• Bouzat G, Carraz JC, Meyer M. 1996. Light metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS.
   Google Scholar
• Brown AP, Loutfy RO, Cook GM, Yao NP. 1981. The electrorefining of copper from a cuprous ion complexing electrolyte. JOM. 33(7):49–57. doi:10.1007/BF03339455.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caravaca C, De Córdoba G. 2008. Formation of Gd-Al alloy films by a molten salt electrochemical process. Z Naturforsch A. 63:98–106. doi:10.1515/zna-2008-1-217.
   Google Scholar
• Cardarelli F. 2004. U. S. Patent: 20040194574 A1.
   Google Scholar
• Castrillejo Y, Vega A, Vega M, Hernández P, Rodriguez JA, Barrado E. 2014. Electrochemical formation of Sc-Al intermetallic compounds in the eutectic LiCl-KCl. Determination of thermodynamic properties. Electrochim Acta. 118:58–66. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2013.11.163.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen GZ, Fray DJ, Farthing TW. 2000. Direct electrochemical reduction of titanium dioxide to titanium in molten calcium chloride. Nature. 407:361–364. doi:10.1038/35030069.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen GZ, Fray DJ, Farthing TW. 2001. Cathodic deoxygenation of the alpha case on titanium and alloys in molten calcium chloride. Metall Mater Trans B. 32:1041–1052. doi:10.1007/s11663-001-0093-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davenport DW, King M, Schlesinger M, Biswas AK. 2002. Extractive metallurgy of copper. 4th ed. Oxford: Pergamon. Chapter 16.
   Google Scholar
• Fray D, Schwandt C. 2017. Aspects of the application of electrochemistry to the extraction of titanium and its applications. Mater Trans. 58(3):306–312. doi:10.2320/matertrans.MK201619.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fray DJ. 2008. Novel methods for the production of titanium. Int Mater Rev. 53:317–325. doi:10.1179/174328008X324594.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fray DJ, Farthing TW, Chen Z. 1999. Removal of oxygen from metal oxides Patent, International Publication No: WO9964638 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Free ML, Moats MS. 2014. Hydrometallurgy. In: Seetharaman S, editor. Treatise on process metallurgy, Vol 3. Oxford: Elsevier; p. 99–982. Chapter 2.7.
   Google Scholar
• Gilchrist JD. 1980. Extraction metallurgy. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Pergamon. Chapter 12.
   Google Scholar
• Ginata MV. 2003. Titanium electrowinning. In: International Symposium on Ionic Liquids, Carry-le-Rouet, France, June 27–28, p. 1–15.
   Google Scholar
• Ginatta MV. 2000. Why produce titanium by EW? JOM. 52(5):18–20. doi:10.1007/s11837-000-0025-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grjotheim K, Welch BJ. 1987. Aluminium smelter technology. 2nd ed. Dusseldorf: Aluminium-Verlag. Chapter 4.
   Google Scholar
• Han W, Chen Q, Sun Y, Jiang T, Zhang M. 2011. Electrodeposition of Mg-Li-Al-La alloys on inert cathode in molten LiCl-KCl eutectic salt. Metall Mater Trans B. 42:1367–1375. doi:10.1007/s11663-011-9567-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han W, Li Z, Li M, Gao Y, Yang X, Zhang M, Sunab Y. 2018. Electrolytic extraction of dysprosium and thermodynamic evaluation of Cu–Dy intermetallic compound in eutectic LiCl–KCl. Royal Soc Chem Adv. 8:8118–8129. doi:10.1039/C7RA13423A.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardee K, Moats M. 2000. Application of titanium mesh-on-lead technology to metal electrowinning systems. In: Woods R, Doyle FM, editors. Electrochemistry in mineral and metal processing V. Pennington, NJ: The Electrochemical Society; p. 294–302.
   Google Scholar
• Hart PF, Hill AWD. 1971. Electrorefining in molten salts. In: Kuhn AT, editor. Industrial electrochemical processes. Oxford: Elsevier; p. 245–254.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson E. 1986. Hydrometallurgical extraction and reclamation. New York, NY: Ellis Harwood, John Wiley & Sons. (Chapter 5).
   Google Scholar
• Jamrack WD. 1963. Rare metal extraction by chemical engineering techniques. New York: MacMillan. (Chapter 7).
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins J, et al. 1999. Electrolytic copper—leach, solvent extraction and electrowinning world operating. In: Young SK, et al., editors. Copper 99–Cobre 99—Fourth International Conference, Vol. 4, Hydrometallurgy of Copper. Warrendale, PA: TMS; p. 493–566.
   Google Scholar
• Jewell D, Jiao SQ, Kurtanjek M, Fray DJ. 2012. Titanium metal production via oxycarbide electrorefining. Denver, CO: International Titanium Association.
   Google Scholar
• Jiao SQ, Zhu HM. 2006. Novel metallurgical process for titanium production. J Mater Res. 21(9):2172–2175. doi:10.1557/jmr.2006.0268.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiao SQ, Zhu HM. 2007. Electrolysis of Ti2CO solid solution prepared by TiC and TiO2. J Alloy Compd. 438:243–246. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2006.08.016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerby RC, Krauss CJ. 1980. Continuous monitoring of zinc electrolyte quality at cominco cathodic by overpotential measurements. In: Cigan JM, Mackay TS, O’Keefe TJ, editors. Lead-Zinc-Tin’80. Las Vegas, NV: TMS-AIME; p. 187–193.
   Google Scholar
• Kjos OS, Haarberg GM, Martinez AM. 2010. Electrochemical production of titanium from oxycarbide anodes. Key Eng Mater. 436:93–101. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.436.93.
   Google Scholar
• Krishnan A, Pal UB, Lu XG. 2005. Solid oxide membrane process for magnesium production directly from magnesium oxide. Metall Mater Trans B. 36:463–473. doi:10.1007/s11663-005-0037-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leber Jr BP, Tabereaux AT, Marks J, Lamb H, Howard T, Kantamaneni R, Gibbs M, Bakshi V, Dolin EJ. 1998. Light metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS.
   Google Scholar
• MacLeod ID, Muir DM, Parker AJ, Singh P. 1977. Solvation of ions. Some applications. II. Electrolysis of copper(I) sulphate in water-nitrile mixtures. Aust J Chem. 30:1423–1429. doi:10.1071/CH9771423.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantell CL. 1960. Electrochemical engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill. Chapter 5.
   Google Scholar
• Marks J. 1998. Light metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS.
   Google Scholar
• Moats M, Free M. 2007. A bright future for copper electrowinning. JOM. 59(10):34–36. doi:10.1007/s11837-007-0128-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moats M, Guerra E, Gonzalez JA. 2008. Zinc electrowinning – operating data. In: Centomo L, Collins M, Harlamovs J, Liu J, editors. Zinc and lead metallurgy. Montreal, Canada: Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum; p. 307–314.
   Google Scholar
• Moats M, Hardee K, Brown Jr C. 2003a. Copper electrowinning in cobalt-free electrolyte using mesh on lead anodes. In: Dutrizac JE, Clement C, editors. Proceedings of the Copper–Cobre 2003 International Conference, volume V. Warrendale, PA: TMS; p. 543–553.
   Google Scholar
• Moats M, Hardee K, Brown Jr C. 2003b. Mesh-on-lead anodes for copper electrowinning. JOM. 55(7):46–48. doi:10.1007/s11837-003-0125-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore JJ. 1990. Chemical metallurgy. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth – Heinemann. Chapter 6.
   Google Scholar
• Muir DM, Parker AJ, Sharp JH, Waghorne WE. 1975. Cuprous hydrometallurgy. Hydrometallurgy. 1:155–168. doi:10.1016/0304-386X(75)90005-5.
   Google Scholar
• Oishi T, Koyama K, Alam S, Tanaka M, Lee J-C. 2007. Recovery of high purity copper cathode from printed circuit boards using ammoniacal sulfate or chloride solutions. Hydrometallurgy. 89:82–88. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2007.05.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oishi T, Yaguchi M, Koyama K, Tanaka M, Lee J-C. 2013. Effect of additives on monovalent copper electrodeposition in ammoniacal alkaline solutions. Hydrometallurgy. 133:58–63. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2012.11.015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okabe TH, Nakamura M, Oishi T, Ono K. 1993. Electrochemical deoxidation of titanium. Metall Trans B. 24:449–455. doi:10.1007/BF02666427.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ono K, Suzuki R. 2002. A new concept for producing Ti sponge: calciothermic reduction. JOM. 54:59–61. doi:10.1007/BF02701078.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pal UB. 2008. A lower carbon footprint process for production of metals from their oxide sources. JOM. 60:43–47. doi:10.1007/s11837-008-0017-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park I, Abiko T, Okabe TH. 2005. Production of titanium powder directly from TiO2 in CaCl2 through an electronically mediated reaction (EMR). J Phys Chem Solids. 66(2-40):410–413. doi:10.1016/j.jpcs.2004.06.052.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker RH. 1978. An introduction to chemical metallurgy. 2nd ed. Oxford: Pergamon. Chapter 7.
   Google Scholar
• Roberts RA, Ramsey PJ. 1994. Light metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson DJ, MacDonald SA, Jiricny V. 2010. United States Patent No. US 7.658,833 B2, Feb. 9, 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson T, Moats M, Davenport W, Karcas G, Demetrio S. 2007. Electrolytic copper electrowinning – 2007 world tankhouse operating data. In: Houlachi GE, Edwards JD, Robinson TG, editors. Copper - cobre 2007 international conference – Vol. V. Montreal, Canada: Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum; p. 375–424.
   Google Scholar
• Sammut D, Welham NJ. 2002. The intec copper process: a detailed environmental analysis. In: Green Processing Conference, Caims, May 29–31, p. 115–123.
   Google Scholar
• Schwandt C, Alexander DTL, Fray DJ. 2009. The electro-deoxidation of porous titanium dioxide precursors in molten calcium chloride under cathodic potential control. Electrochim Acta. 54:3819–3829. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2009.02.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shamsuddin M. 2016. Physical chemistry of metallurgical processes. Hoboken: The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, Wiley. Chapter 12.
   Google Scholar
• Stefanidaki E, Hasiotis C, Kontoyannis C. 2001. Electrodeposition of neodymium from LiF–NdF3–Nd2O3 melts. Electrochim Acta. 46(17):2665–2670. doi:10.1016/S0013-4686(01)00489-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suput M, Delucas R, Pati S, Ye G, Pal A, Powell IV AC. 2008. Solid oxide membrane technology for environmentally sound production of titanium. Miner Process Extr Metall Rev. 117:118–122. doi:10.1179/174328508X290911.
   Google Scholar
• Suzuki RO, Ono K, Teranuma K. 2003. Calciothermic reduction of titanium oxide and in-situ electrolysis in molten CaCl2. Metall Mater Trans B. 34:287–295. doi:10.1007/s11663-003-0074-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabereaux AT, Peterson RD. 2014. Aluminum production. In: Seetharaman S, editor. Treatise on process metallurgy, non-ferrous production technology, Vol 3. Oxford: Elsevier; p. 949–982. Chapter X.
   Google Scholar
• Tabereaux AT, Richards NE, Satchel CE. 1995. Light metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS.
   Google Scholar
• Takeda O, Uda T, Okabe TH. 2014. Rare earth, titanium group metal, and reactive metal production. In: Seetharaman S, editor. Treatise on process metallurgy, non ferrous production technology, Vol 3. Oxford: Elsevier; p. 995–1069. Chapter 2.9.
   Google Scholar
• Tang D, Xiao W, Tian L, Wang D. 2013. Electrosynthesis of Ti2Con from TiO2/C composite in molten CaCl2: effect of electrolysis voltage and duration. J Electrochem Soc. 160:F1192–F1196. doi:10.1149/2.015311jes.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thonstad J, Fellner P, Haarberg GM, Hives J, Kvande H, Sterten A. 2001. Aluminium electrolysis. 3rd ed. Düsseldorf, Germany: Aluminium Verlag, Markting & Kommunikation GmbH.
   Google Scholar
• Wang DH, Gmitter AJ, Sadoway DR. 2011. Production of oxygen gas and liquid metal by electrochemical decomposition of molten iron oxide. J Electrochem Soc. 158:E51–E54. doi:10.1149/1.3560477.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang QY, Song J, Wu J, Jiao SQ, Hou J, Zhu HM. 2014. A new consumable anode material of titanium oxycarbonitride for the USTB titanium process. Phys Chem Chem Phys. 16:8086–8091. doi:10.1039/c4cp00185k.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wells JA, Hopkins WR, Stein RB. 1992. Chemical and electrolytic processing. In: Hartman HL, editor. SME mining engineering handbook. Englewood, CO: SME; p. 2250–2258.
   Google Scholar
• Withers J, Laughlin J, Elkadi Y, DeSilva J, Loutfy R. 2010. The electrolytic production of Ti from a TiO2 feed (the DARPA sponsored program). Key Eng Mater. 436:61–74. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.436.61.
   Google Scholar
• Withers JC, Loutfy RO, Laughlin JP. 2007. Electrolytic process to produce titanium from TiO2 feed. Mater Technol. 22:66–70. doi:10.1179/175355507X214078.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ye XS, Lu XG, Li CH, Ding WZ, Zou XL, Gao YH, Zhong QD. 2011. Preparation of Ti–Fe based hydrogen storage alloy by SOM method. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 36:4573–4579. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.04.098.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Fang ZZ, Sun P, Zheng S, Xia Y, Free M. 2017. A perspective on thermochemical and electrochemical processes for titanium metal production. JOM. 69(10):1861–1868. doi:10.1007/s11837-017-2481-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zou X, Lu X, Zhou Z, Xiao W, Zhong Q, Li C, Ding W. 2014. Electrochemical extraction of Ti5Si3 silicide from multicomponent Ti/Si-containing metal oxide compounds in molten salt. J Mater Chem A. 2:7421–7431. doi:10.1039/c3ta15039a.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zúñiga V, Ortega R, Meas Y, Trejo G. 2004. Electrodeposition of zinc from an alkaline non-cyanide bath: influence of a quaternary aliphatic polyamine. Plat Surf Finish. 91:46–51.
   Google Scholar