Advanced search
Publication Cover
Applied Phycology Volume 3, 2022 - Issue 1
Submit an article Journal homepage
3,091
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Reproduction, hatchery and culture applications for the giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera): a methodological appraisal

Duong M. Lea Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand;b Coastal People Southern Skies Centre of Research Excellence, University of Otago, Dunedin, New ZealandCorrespondence[email protected]
ORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-8424-4624View further author information
ORCID Icon,
Matthew J. Desmonda Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand;b Coastal People Southern Skies Centre of Research Excellence, University of Otago, Dunedin, New ZealandView further author information
,
Alejandro H. Buschmannc Centro I~mar and CeBiB, Universidad de Los Lagos, Puerto Montt, ChileORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-3246-681XView further author information
ORCID Icon,
Daniel W. Pritcharda Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New ZealandView further author information
,
Carolina Camusc Centro I~mar and CeBiB, Universidad de Los Lagos, Puerto Montt, ChileView further author information
,
Catriona L. Hurdd Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, AustraliaORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-9965-4917View further author information
ORCID Icon &
Christopher D. Hepburna Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand;b Coastal People Southern Skies Centre of Research Excellence, University of Otago, Dunedin, New ZealandView further author information
 show all
Pages 368-382 | Received 26 Dec 2021, Accepted 30 May 2022, Published online: 04 Sep 2022

References

  • Alleway, H. K., Gillies, C. L., Bishop, M. J., Gentry, R. R., Theuerkauf, S. J., & Jones, R. (2019). The ecosystem services of marine aquaculture: Valuing benefits to people and nature. BioScience, 69, 59–68.
  • Alsuwaiyan, N. A., Mohring, M. B., Cambridge, M., Coleman, M. A., Kendrick, G. A., & Wernberg, T. (2019). A review of protocols for the experimental release of kelp (Laminariales) zoospores. Ecology and Evolution, 9, 8387–8398.
  • Amsler, C. D., & Neushul, M. (1989). Chemotactic effects of nutrients on spores of the kelps Macrocystis pyrifera and Pterygophora California. Marine Biology, 102, 557–564.
  • Amsler, C. D., & Neushul, M. (1990). Nutrient stimulation of spore settlement in the kelps Pterygophora californica and Macrocystis pyrifera. Marine Biology, 107, 297–304.
  • Andersen, R. A. (2005). Algal culturing techniques (1st ed.). Elsevier: Elsevier Academic Press.
  • Anderson, E. K., & North, W. J. (1967). Zoospore release rates in giant kelp Macrocystis. Bull. South.Calif. Acad. Sci, 66, 223–232.
  • Anderson, B. S., & Hunt, J. W. (1988). Bioassay methods for evaluating the toxicity of heavy metals, biocides and sewage effluent using microscopic stages of giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera (Agardh): A preliminary report. Marine Environmental Research, 26, 113–134.
  • Andrew, N. L., & O’Neill, A. L. (2000). Large-scale patterns in habitat structure on subtidal rocky reefs in New South Wales. Marine & Freshwater Research, 51, 255.
  • Bak, U. G., Mols-Mortensen, A., & Gregersen, O. (2018). Production method and cost of commercial-scale offshore cultivation of kelp in the Faroe Islands using multiple partial harvesting. Algal Research, 33, 36–47.
  • Bak, U. G., Gregersen, Ó., & Infante, J. (2020). Technical challenges for offshore cultivation of kelp species: Lessons learned and future directions. Botanica Marina, 63, 341–353.
  • Barrento, S., Camus, C., Sousa-Pinto, I., & Buschmann, A. H. (2016). Germplasm banking of the giant kelp: Our biological insurance in a changing environment. Algal Research, 13, 134–140.
  • Blamey, L. K., & Branch, G. M. (2012). Regime shift of a kelp-forest benthic community induced by an “invasion” of the rock lobster Jasus lalandii. Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 420–421, 33–47.
  • Boland, W., Marner, F.-J., Jaenicke, L., Muller, D. G., & Folster, E. (1983). Comparative receptor study in gamete chemotaxis of the seaweeds Ectocarpus siliculosus and Cutleria multjida: An approach to interspecific communication of algal gametes. Eur. J. Biochem, 134, 97–103.
  • Bolton, J. J., Anderson, R. J., Smit, A. J., & Rothman, M. D. (2012). South African kelp moving eastwards: The discovery of Ecklonia maxima (Osbeck) Papenfuss at De Hoop nature reserve on the south coast of South Africa. African Journal of Marine Science, 34, 147–151.
  • Brown, M. T., Nyman, M. A., Keogh, J. A., & Chin, N. K. M. (1997). Seasonal growth of the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera in New Zealand. Marine Biology, 129, 417–424.
  • Buschmann, A. H., Väsquez, J. A., Osorio, P., Reyes, E., Filún, L., Hernández-González, M. C., & Vega, A. (2004). The effect of water movement, temperature and salinity on abundance and reproductive patterns of Macrocystis spp. (Phaeophyta) at different latitudes in Chile. Marine Biology, 145, 849–862.
  • Buschmann, A. H., Moreno, C., Vásquez, J. A., & Hernández-González, M. C. (2006). Reproduction strategies of Macrocystis pyrifera (Phaeophyta) in southern Chile: The importance of population dynamics. Applied Phycology, 18. doi:10.1007/s10811-006-9063-5
  • Buschmann, A. H., Prescott, S., Potin, P., Faugeron, S., Vásquez, J. A., Camus, C., & Varela, D. A. (2014). The status of kelp exploitation and marine agronomy, with emphasis on Macrocystis pyrifera, in Chile. In Advances in botanical research (pp. 161–188). Academic Press. doi.10.1016/B978-0-12-408062-1.00006-8
  • Buschmann, A. H., Villegas, K., Pereda, S. V., Camus, C., Kappes, J. L., Altamirano, R., & Hernández-González, M. C. (2020). Enhancing yield on Macrocystis pyrifera (Ochrophyta): The effect of gametophytic developmental strategy. Algal Research, 52, 102124.
  • Butler, C. L., Lucieer, V. L., Wotherspoon, S. J., & Johnson, C. R. (2020). Multi-decadal decline in cover of giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera at the southern limit of its Australian range. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 653, 1–18.
  • Cai, J., Lovatelli, A., Aguilar-Manjarrez, J., Cornish, L., Dabbadie, L., Desrochers, A., Diffey, S., Garrido Gamarro, E., Geehan, J., Hurtado, A., Lucente, D., Mair, G., Miao, W., Potin, P., Przybyla, C., Reantaso, M., Roubach, R., Tauati, M. & Yuan, X.(2021). Seaweeds and microalgae: An overview for unlocking their potential in global aquaculture development. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular No. 1229. Rome, FAO: . doi:10.4060/cb5670en
  • Campbell, A. H., Marzinelli, E. M., Coleman, M. A., Verge, A., & Steinberg, P. D. (2014). Towards restoration of missing underwater forests. PLoS ONE, 9, e84106.
  • Camus, C., & Buschmann, A. H. (2017). Macrocystis pyrifera aquafarming: Production optimization of rope-seeded juvenile sporophytes. Aquaculture, 468, 107–114.
  • Camus, C., Faugeron, S., & Buschmann, A. H. (2018a). Assessment of genetic and phenotypic diversity of the giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, to support breeding programs. Algal Research, 30, 101–112.
  • Camus, C., Infante, J., & Buschmann, A. H. (2018b). Overview of 3 year precommercial seafarming of Macrocystis pyrifera along the Chilean coast. Reviews in Aquaculture, 10, 543–559.
  • Camus, C., Solas, M., Martínez, C., Vargas, J., Garcés, C., & Gil-Kodaka, P. (2021). Mates matter: Gametophyte kinship recognition and inbreeding in the giant kelp, macrocystis pyrifera (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae). Journal of Phycology, 57, 711–725.
  • Carney, L. T., Waaland, J. R., Klinger, T., & Ewing, K. (2005). Restoration of the bull kelp Nereocystis luetkeana in nearshore rocky habitats. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 302, 49–61.
  • Carney, L. T., & Edwards, M. S. (2010). Role of nutrient fluctuations and delayed development in gametophyte reproduction by Macrocystis pyrifera (Phaeophyceae) in Southern California. Phycology, 46. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2010.00882.x
  • Choi, Y. H., Nam, T. J., & Kuwano, K. (2013). Cryopreservation of gametophytic thalli of Porphyra yezoensis (Rhodophyceae) by one-step fast cooling. Applied Phycology, 25. doi:10.1007/s10811-012-9887-0
  • Chopin, T., & Tacon, A. G. J. (2021). Importance of seaweeds and extractive species in global aquaculture production. Reviews in Fisheries Science and Aquaculture, 29, 139–148.
  • Cie, D. K., & Edwards, M. S. (2008). The effects of high irradiance on the settlement competency and viability of kelp zoospores. Phycology, 44. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2008.00464.x
  • Coleman, M. A., Wood, G., Filbee-Dexter, K., Minne, A. J. P., Goold, H. D., Vergés, A., … Wernberg, T. (2020). Restore or redefine: Future trajectories for restoration. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7. doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.00237
  • Connell, S. D. (2003). Negative effects overpower the positive of kelp to exclude invertebrates from the understorey community. Oecologia, 137, 97–103.
  • Correa, T., Gutiérrez, A., Flores, R., Buschmann, A. H., Cornejo, P., & Bucarey, C. (2016). Production and economic assessment of giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera cultivation for abalone feed in the south of Chile. Aquaculture Research, 47, 698–707.
  • Desmond, M. J., Pritchard, D. W., & Hepburn, C. D. (2015). Light limitation within southern New Zealand kelp forest communities. PLoS ONE, 10, e0123676.
  • Devinny, J. S., & Volse, L. A. (1978). Effects of sediments on the development of Macrocystis pyrifera gametophytes. Marine Biology, 48, 343–348.
  • Devinny, J. S., & Leventhal, J. (1979). New methods for mass culture of Macrocystis pyrifera sporophytes. Aquaculture, 17, 241–250.
  • Deysher, L. E., & Dean, T. A. (1984). Critical irradiance levels and the interactive effects of quantum irradiance and dose on gametogenesis in the giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera. Phycology, 20, 520–524.
  • Fain, S. R., & Murray, S. N. (1982). Effects of light and temperature on net photosynthesis and dark respiration of gametophytes and embryonic sporophytes of Macrocystis pyrifera. Phycology, 18, 92–98.
  • FAO. (2018). The global status of seaweed production, trade and utilization. GLOBEFISH Research Programme Vol. 124 Rome: IGO.
  • FAO. (2020a). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome. doi:10.4060/ca9229en
  • FAO. (2020b). The UN decade on ecosystem restoration 2021-2030. Retrieved from: www.unep.org.
  • Fernández, P. A., Navarro, J. M., Camus, C., Torres, R., & Buschmann, A. H. (2021). Effect of environmental history on the habitat-forming kelp Macrocystis pyrifera responses to ocean acidification and warming: A physiological and molecular approach. Scientific Reports, 11. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-82094-7
  • Filbee-Dexter, K., Feehan, C. J., & Scheibling, R. E. (2016). Large-scale degradation of a kelp ecosystem in an ocean warming hotspot. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 543, 141–152.
  • Filbee-Dexter, K., & Wernberg, T. (2018). Rise of Turfs: A new battlefront for globally declining kelp forests. BioScience, 68, 64–76.
  • Fredriksen, S., Filbee-Dexter, K., Norderhaug, K. M., Steen, H., Bodvin, T., Coleman, M. A., … Wernberg, T. (2020). Green gravel: A novel restoration tool to combat kelp forest decline. Scientific Reports, 10. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-60553-x
  • Friedlander, A. M., Ballesteros, E., Bell, T. W., Giddens, J., Henning, B., Hüne, M., … Bernardi, G. (2018). Marine biodiversity at the end of the world: Cape Horn and Diego Ramírez islands. PLOS ONE, 13, e0189930.
  • Froehlich, H. E., Gentry, R. R., & Halpern, B. S. (2017). Conservation aquaculture: Shifting the narrative and paradigm of aquaculture’s role in resource management. Biological Conservation, 215, 162–168.
  • Garman, G. D., Pillai, M. C., Goff, L. J., & Cherr, G. N. (1994). Nuclear events during early development in gametophytes of Macrocystis pyrifera, and the temporal effects of a marine contaminant. Marine Biology, 121, 355–362.
  • Gerard, V. A. (1982). In situ rates of nitrate uptake by giant kelp, Macrocystis Pyrifera (L.) C. Agardh: Tissue differences, environmental effects, and predictions of nitrogen-limited growth. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 62, 211–224.
  • Giangrande, A., Gravina, M. F., Rossi, S., Longo, C., & Pierri, C. (2021). Aquaculture and restoration: Perspectives from Mediterranean sea experiences. Water (Switzerland), 13. doi:10.3390/w13070991
  • Ginsburger-Vogel, T., Arbault, S., & Pérez, R. (1992). Ultrastructural study of the effect of freezingthawing on the gametophyte of the brown alga Undaria pinnatifida. Aquaculture, 106, 171–181.
  • Goecke, F., Klemetsdal, G., & Ergon, Å. (2020). Cultivar development of kelps for commercial cultivation—past lessons and future prospects. Frontiers in Marine Science, 8. doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.00110
  • González-Fragoso, J., Ibarra-Obando, S. E., & North, W. J. (1991). Frond elongation rates of shallow waterMacrocystis pyrifera (L.) Ag. In northern Baja California, Mexico. Applied Phycology, 3. doi:10.1007/bf00026093
  • Graham, M. H. (1996). Effect of high irradiance on recruitment of the giant kelp Macrocystis (Phaeophyta) in shallow water. Phycology, 32, 903–906.
  • Graham, M. H., Vásquez, J. A., & Buschmann, A. H. (2007). Global ecology of the giant kelp Macrocystis: From ecotypes to ecosystems. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review, 45, 39–88.
  • Grout, B. W. W. (1995). Introduction to the in vitro preservation of plant cells, tissues and organs. In Genetic preservation of plant cells in vitro. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-78661-7_1
  • Gutierrez, A., Correa, T., Muñoz, V., Santibañez, A., Marcos, R., Cáceres, C., et al. (2006). Farming of the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera in southern Chile for development of novel food products. In Eighteenth international seaweed symposium (pp. 259–267). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5670-3_5
  • Harrison, P. J., & Hurd, C. L. (2001). Nutrient physiology of seaweeds: Application of concepts to aquaculture. Cahiers de Biologie Marine, 42.
  • Hay, C. H. (1990). The distribution of Macrocystis (Phaeophyta: Laminariales) as a biological indicator of cool sea surface temperature, with special reference to New Zealand waters. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 20, 313–336.
  • Henríquez, L. A., Buschmann, A. H., Maldonado, M. A., Graham, M. H., Hernández-González, M. C., Pereda, S. V., & Bobadilla, M. I. (2011). Grazing on giant kelp microscopic phases and the recruitment success of annual populations of Macrocystis pyrifera (laminariales, phaeophyta) in southern Chile. Phycology, 47. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2010.00955.x
  • Hernández-Carmona, G. (1996). Frond elongation rates of Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) AG. at Bahía Tortugas, Baja California Sur, Mexico. Ciencias Marinas, 22, 57–72.
  • Hollarsmith, J. A., Buschmann, A. H., Camus, C., & Grosholz, E. D. (2020). Varying reproductive success under ocean warming and acidification across giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) populations. Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 522, 151247.
  • Hu, Z. M., Shan, T. F., Zhang, J., Zhang, Q. S., Critchley, A. T., Choi, H. G., & Duan, D.-L. (2021). Kelp aquaculture in China: A retrospective and future prospects. Reviews in Aquaculture, 13, 1324–1351.
  • Hwang, E. K., Yotsukura, N., Pang, S. J., Su, L., & Shan, T. F. (2019). Seaweed breeding programs and progress in Eastern Asian countries. Phycologia, 58, 484–495.
  • James, D. E., Stull, J. K., & North, W. J. (1990). Toxicity of sewage-contaminated sediment cores to Macrocystis pyrifera (Laminariales, Phaeophyta) gametophytes determined by digital image analysis. Hydrobiologia, 204, 483–489.
  • Johnson, C. R., Banks, S. C., Barrett, N. S., Cazassus, F., Dunstan, P. K., Edgar, G. J., & Taw, N. (2011). Climate change cascades: Shifts in oceanography, species’ ranges and subtidal marine community dynamics in eastern Tasmania. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 400, 17–32.
  • Jones, C. G., Lawron, J. H., & Shachak, M. (1997). Positive and negative effects of organisms as physical ecosystem engineers. Ecology, 78, 1946–1957.
  • Kawai, H., Motomura, T., & Okuda, K. (2005). Isolation and purification techniques for macroalgae. In Algal Culturing Techniques 133 . doi:10.1016/b978-012088426-1/50010-x
  • Kim, J. K., Yarish, C., Hwang, E. K., Park, M., & Kim, Y. (2017). Seaweed aquaculture: Cultivation technologies, challenges and its ecosystem services. Algae, 32, 1–13.
  • Kono, S., Kuwano, K., & Saga, N. (1998). Cryopreservation of Eisenia bicyclis (Laminariales, Phaeophyta) in liquid nitrogen. Marine Biotechnology, 6 220–223 .
  • Kraufvelin, P., & Díaz, E. R. (2015). Sediment macrofauna communities at a small mussel farm in the northern Baltic proper. Boreal Environment Research, 20 378–390 .
  • Kriegisch, N., Reeves, S. E., Johnson, C. R., & Ling, S. D. (2019). Top-down sea urchin overgrazing overwhelms bottom-up stimulation of kelp beds despite sediment enhancement. Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 514–515, 48–58.
  • Krumhansl, K. A., Okamoto, D. K., Rassweiler, A., Novak, M., Bolton, J. J., Cavanaugh, K. C., & Byrnes, J. E. (2016). Global patterns of kelp forest change over the past half-century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 113, 13785–13790.
  • Kuwano, K., Kono, S., Jo, Y. H., Shin, J. A., & Saga, N. (2004). Cryopreservation of the gametophytic cells of Laminariales (Phaeophyta) in liquid nitrogen. Phycology, 40. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2004.03121.x
  • Layton, C., Coleman, M. A., Marzinelli, E. M., Steinberg, P. D., Swearer, S. E., Vergés, A., & Johnson, C. R. (2020). Kelp forest restoration in Australia. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7. doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.00074
  • Leal, P. P., Hurd, C. L., & Roleda, M. Y. (2014). Meiospores produced in sori of nonsporophyllous laminae of Macrocystis pyrifera (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae) may enhance reproductive output. Phycology, 50, 400–405.
  • Leal, P. P., Hurd, C. L., Fernández, P. A., & Roleda, M. Y. (2017). Ocean acidification and kelp development: reduced pH has no negative effects on meiospore germination and gametophyte development of Macrocystis pyrifera and Undaria pinnatifida. Phycology, 53. doi:10.1111/jpy.12518
  • Leal, P. P., Roleda, M. Y., Fernández, P. A., Nitschke, U., & Hurd, C. L. (2021). Reproductive phenology and morphology of Macrocystis pyrifera (Laminariales, Ochrophyta) from southern New Zealand in relation to wave exposure 1. Phycology, 57, 1619–1635.
  • Lewis, R. J., & Neushul, M. (1994). Northern and Southern hemisphere hybrids of Macrocystis (Phaeophyceae). Phycology, 30. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3646.1994.00346.x
  • Ling, S. D., Johnson, C. R., Frusher, S. D., & Ridgway, K. R. (2009). Overfishing reduces resilience of kelp beds to climate-driven catastrophic phase shift. Ecology, 106. Available at www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/
  • Lüning, K., & Neushul, M. (1978). Light and temperature demands for growth and reproduction of laminarian gametophytes in southern and central California. Marine Biology, 45, 297–309.
  • Lüning, K. (1981). Photobiology of seaweeds: Ecophysiological aspects. In T. Levrig (Ed.), International seaweed symposium (Xth) (pp. 35–56). Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. doi:10.1515/9783110865271-005
  • Mabin, C. J. T., Johnson, C. R., & Wright, J. T. (2019). Physiological response to temperature, light, and nitrates in the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera from Tasmania, Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 614, 1–19.
  • Macchiavello, J., Araya, E., & Bulboa, C. (2010). Production of Macrocystis pyrifera (Laminariales; Phaeophyceae) in northern Chile on spore-based culture. Journal of Applied Phycology, 22, 691–697.
  • Maier, I., Hertweck, C., & Boland, W. (2001). Stereochemical specificity of lamoxirene, the sperm-releasing pheromone in kelp (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae). Biological Bulletin, 201, 121–125.
  • Markham, J. W., & Hagmeier, E. (1982). Observations on the effects of germanium dioxide on the growth of macro-algae and diatoms. Phycologia, 21, 125–130.
  • McHugh, D. (2003). A guide to the seaweed industry: FAO fisheries technical paper No. 441.
  • Mcleod, I. M., Boström-Einarsson, L., Johnson, C. R., Kendrick, G., Layton, C., Rogers, A. A., et al. (2018). The role of restoration in conserving matters of national environmental significance in marine and coastal environments.98-101.
  • Mearns, A. J., Hanan, D. A., & Harris, L. (1997). Recovery of kelp forest off Palos verdes.
  • Morris, M. M., Haggerty, J. M., Papudeshi, B. N., Vega, A. A., Edwards, M. S., & Dinsdale, E. A. (2016). Nearshore pelagic microbial community abundance affects recruitment success of giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.01800
  • Muñoz, V., Hernández-González, M. C., Buschmann, A. H., Graham, M. H., & Vásquez, J. A. (2004). Variability in per capita oogonia and sporophyte production from giant kelp gametophytes (Macrocystis pyrifera, Phaeophyceae). Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 77. doi:10.4067/S0716-078X2004000400007
  • Murúa, P., Patiño, D. J., Müller, D. G., & Westermeier, R. (2021). Sexual compatibility in giant kelp gametophytes: Inter-cultivar hybridization is average between parents but excels under harsher conditions. Journal of Applied Phycology, 33, 3261–3275.
  • Navarro, N. P., Mansilla, A., & Palacios, M. (2007). UVB effects on early developmental stages of commercially important macroalgae in southern Chile. Applied Phycology, 447–456. UVB, doi:10.1007/s10811-007-9276-2
  • Naylor, R. L., Hardy, R. W., Buschmann, A. H., Bush, S. R., Cao, L., Klinger, D. H. … Troell, M. (2021). A 20-year retrospective review of global aquaculture. Nature, 591, 551–563. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03308-6
  • Neushul, M. (1963). Studies on the giant kelp, Macrocystis. II. Reproduction. American Journal of Botany, 50. doi:10.1002/j.1537-2197.1963.tb07203.x
  • North, W. J. (1976). Aquacultural techniques for creating and restoring beds of giant kelp, Macrocystis spp. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 33, 1015–1023.
  • North, W. J., Jackson, G. A., & Manley, S. L. (1986). Macrocystis and its environment, knowns and unknowns. Aquatic Botany, 26, 9–26. doi:10.1016/0304-3770(86)90003-3
  • Ortiz, J., Uquiche, E., Robert, P., Romero, N., Quitral, V., & Llantén, C. (2009). Functional and nutritional value of the Chilean seaweeds Codium fragile, Gracilaria chilensis and Macrocystis pyrifera. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 111, 320–327.
  • Piel, M. I., Avila, M., & Alcapán, A. (2015). Cryopreservation of early stages of Macrocystis pyrifera gametophytes (Laminariales, Ochrophyta) under controlled laboratory conditions. Revista de Biologia Marina Y Oceanografia, 50, 157–162.
  • Plá, P. C., & Alveal, K. (2012). Development of Macrocystis pyrifera from spores and gametes on artificial substrate. Algal production in a surface culture. Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research, 40. doi:10.3856/vol40-issue2-fulltext-5
  • Purcell-Meyerink, D., Packer, M. A., Wheeler, T. T., & Hayes, M. (2021). Aquaculture production of the brown seaweeds Laminaria digitata and Macrocystis pyrifera: Applications in food and pharmaceuticals. Molecules, 26, 1306.
  • Raimondi, P. T., Reed, D. C., Gaylord, B., & Washburn, L. (2004). Effects of self-fertilization in the giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera. Ecology, 85, 3267–3276.
  • Redmond, S., Green, L., Yarish, C., Kim, J., & Neefus, C. (2014). New England seaweed culture handbook-nursery systems. Groton Available at: http://s.uconn.edu/seaweedplaylist.
  • Reed, D. C., Neushul, M., & Ebeling, A. W. (1991). Role of settlement density on gametophyte growth and reproduction in the kelps Pterygophora californica and Macrocystis pyrifera (Phaeophyceae). Phycology, 27, 361–366.
  • Reed, D. C., Amsler, C. D., & Ebeling, A. W. (1992). Dispersal in kelps : Factors affecting spore swimming and competency. Ecology, 73, 1577–1585. Accessed September 27, 2021. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1940011
  • Reed, D. C., Ebeling, A. W., Anderson, T. W., & Anghera, M. (1996). Differential reproductive responses to fluctuating resources in two seaweeds with different reproductive strategies. Ecology, 77, 300–316.
  • Reed, D. C., Kinlan, B. P., Raimondi, P. T., Washburn, L., Gaylord, B., & Drake, P. T. (2006). A Metapopulation perspective on the patch dynamics of giant kelp in Southern California. In Marine metapopulations (pp. 353–386). Elsevier: Academic Press.
  • Reed, D. C., Rassweiler, A., & Arkema, K. K. (2008). Biomass rather than growth rate determines variation in net primary production by giant kelp. Ecology, 89, 2493–2505.
  • Sanbonsuga, Y., & Neushul, M. (1978). Hybridization of macrocystis (Phaeophyta) with other float-bearing kelps 1, 2. Journal of Phycology, 14, 214–224.
  • Santelices, B. (1990). Patterns of reproduction, dispersal and recruitment in seaweeds. Oceanography and Marine Biology Annual Review, 28 177–276.
  • Schiel, D. R., & Foster, M. S. (2015). The biology and ecology of giant kelp forests (University of California Press). doi:10.2216/5501br01
  • Shea, R., & Chopin, T. (2007). Effects of germanium dioxide, an inhibitor of diatom growth, on the microscopic laboratory cultivation stage of the kelp, Laminaria saccharina. Applied Phycology, 19, 27–32.
  • Shelamoff, V., Layton, C., Tatsumi, M., Cameron, M. J., Wright, J. T., Edgar, G. J., & Johnson, C. R. (2020). High kelp density attracts fishes except for recruiting cryptobenthic species. Marine Environmental Research, 161, 105127.
  • Sherman, J. K. (1973). Synopsis of the use of frozen human semen since 1964: State of the art of human semen banking. Fertility and Sterility, 24, 397–412.
  • Stephens, T. A., & Hepburn, C. D. (2014). Mass-transfer gradients across kelp beds influence Macrocystis pyrifera growth over small spatial scales. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 515, 97–109.
  • Suebsanguan, S., Strain, E. M. A., Morris, R. L., & Swearer, S. E. (2021). Optimizing the initial cultivation stages of kelp Ecklonia radiata for restoration. Restoration Ecology, 29, 1–9.
  • Taylor, R., & Fletcher, R. L. (1998). Cryopreservation of eukaryotic algae - A review of methodologies. Applied Phycology, 10. doi:10.1023/A:1008094622412
  • Terawaki, T., Hasegawa, H., Arai, S., & Ohno, M. (2001). Management-free techniques for restoration of Eisenia and Ecklonia beds along the central Pacific coast of Japan. Applied Phycology, 13. doi:10.1023/A:1008135515037
  • Varela, D. A., Hernríquez, L. A., Fernández, P. A., Leal, P., Hernández-González, M. C., Figueroa, F. L., & Buschmann, A. H. (2018). Photosynthesis and nitrogen uptake of the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera (Ochrophyta) grown close to salmon farms. Marine Environmental Research, 135, 93–102.
  • Vigneron, T., Arbault, S., & Kaas, R. (1997). Cryopreservation of gametophytes of Laminaria digitata (L) lamouroux by encapsulation dehydration. In Cryo-Letters 93–98 .
  • Wade, R., Augyte, S., Harden, M., Nuzhdin, S., Yarish, C., & Alberto, F. (2020). Macroalgal germplasm banking for conservation, food security, and industry. PLoS Biology, 18, e3000641.
  • Wang, X., Yao, J., Zhang, J., & Duan, D. (2020). Status of genetic studies and breeding of Saccharina japonica in China. Journal of Oceanology and Limnology, 38, 1064–1079.
  • Wernberg, T., Smale, D. A., Tuya, F., Thomsen, M. S., Langlois, T. J., de Bettignies, T., & Rousseaux, C. S. (2013). An extreme climatic event alters marine ecosystem structure in a global biodiversity hotspot. Nature Climate Change, 3, 78–82.
  • Wernberg, T., Krumhansl, K., Filbee-Dexter, K., & Pedersen, M. F. (2019). Status and trends for the world’s kelp forests. Second. : Academic Press. doi.10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00003-6
  • Westermeier, R., Patiño, D., Piel, M. I., Maier, I., & Mueller, D. G. (2006). A new approach to kelp mariculture in Chile: Production of free-floating sporophyte seedlings from gametophyte cultures of Lessonia trabeculata and Macrocystis pyrifera. Aquaculture Research, 37(2), 164–171.
  • Westermeier, R., Patiño, D. J., Müller, H., & Müller, D. G. (2010). Towards domestication of giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) in Chile: Selection of haploid parent genotypes, outbreeding, and heterosis. Applied Phycology, 22, 357–361.
  • Westermeier, R., Patiño, D. J., Murúa, P., & Müller, D. G. (2011). Macrocystis mariculture in Chile: Growth performance of heterosis genotype constructs under field conditions. Applied Phycology, 23, 819–825.
  • Westermeier, R., Murúa, P., Patiño, D. J., Muñoz, L., Atero, C., & Müller, D. G. (2014). Repopulation techniques for Macrocystis integrifolia (Phaeophyceae: Laminariales) in Atacama, Chile. Journal of Applied Phycology, 26, 511–518.
  • Wheeler, P. A., & North, W. J. (1981). Nitrogen supply, tissue composition and frond growth rates for Macrocystis pyrifera off the coast of Southern California. Marine Biology, 64, 59–69.
  • Williams, S. L. (2001). Reduced genetic diversity in eelgrass transplantations affects both population growth and individual fitness. Ecological Applications, 11, 1472–1488.
  • Wood, G., Marzinelli, E. M., Coleman, M. A., Campbell, A. H., Santini, N. S., Kajlich, L., … Vergés, A. (2019). Restoring subtidal marine macrophytes in the Anthropocene: Trajectories and future-proofing. Marine & Freshwater Research, 70, 936.
  • Xu, D., Ye, N., Cao, S., Wang, Y., Wang, D., Fan, X., … Mao, Y. (2015). Variation in morphology and PSII photosynthetic characteristics of Macrocystis pyrifera during development from gametophyte to juvenile sporophyte. Aquaculture Research, 46, 1699–1706.
  • Zhang, Q. S., Cong, Y. Z., Qu, S. C., Luo, S. J., Li, X. J., & Tang, X. X. (2007). A simple and highly efficient method for the cryopreservation of Laminaria japonica (Phaeophyceae) germplasm. European Journal of Phycology, 42, 209–213.
  • Zhang, Q., Cong, Y., Qu, S., Luo, S., & Yang, G. (2008). Cryopreservation of gametophytes of Laminaria japonica (Phaeophyta) using encapsulation-dehydration with two-step cooling method. Ocean University of China, 7, 65–71.

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.