- “Les mots ne sont plus conçus illusoirement comme de simples instruments, ils sont lancés comme des projections, des explosions, des vibrations, des machineries, des saveurs”: Roland Barthes, “Leçon Inaugurale,” in Roland Barthes. Oeuvres Complètes, ed. Eric Marty, 5 vols. (Paris, 2002), 5:427–46, at 435. The English translation is from Richard Howard, “Lecture in Inauguration of the Chair of Literary Semiology, Collège de France, January 7, 1977,” October 8 (1979): 3–16, at 7.
- Reinhart Koselleck,”Social History and Conceptual History,” in idem, The Practice of Conceptual History. Timing, History, Spacing Concepts, trans. Todd S. Presner et al. (Stanford, 2002), 20–37; M. Lynne Murphy and Roberta Piazza, “Linguistic Semantic and Historical Semantic,” in Asymmetrical Concepts after Reinhart Koselleck, ed. Kay Junge and Krilii Postoutenko (London, 2011), 51–80.
- L’estoire de Eracles Empereur et la conqueste de la terre d’Outremer; c’est la continuation de l’estoire de Guillaume, arcevesque de Sur, in RHC Oc 2:1–481. In this article, I follow the now customary use of referring to the manuscripts according to the list of Jaroslav Folda, “Manuscripts of the History of Outremer by William of Tyre: a Handlist,” Scriptorium 27/1 (1973): 90–95. I have been able to consult the following manuscripts: Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF), ms. Français 781 (=F19); St-Omer, Bibliothèque Municipale, ms. 722 (=F20); Paris, Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal, ms. 4797 (=F26); London, British Library, Yates Thomson ms. 12 (=F38); Paris, BnF, ms. Français 9086 (=F50); Paris, BnF, ms. Français 24208 (=F51), BnF, ms. Français 2634 (=F57); BnF, ms. Français 2825 (=F58); Boulogne-sur-Mer, Bibliothèque Municipale, ms. 142 (=F69); Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Plu LXI 10 (=F70); Paris, BnF, ms. Français 2628 (=F73); BnF, ms. Français 2631 (=F74); BnF, ms. Français 9082 (=F77). Peter Edbury kindly provided me information on Paris, BnF, ms. Français 9086 (=F50); Leningrad, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, State Public Library, ms fr. f° v. IV. 5 (=F71); Lyon, Bibliothèque Municipale, ms. 828 (=F72); Paris, BnF, ms. français 9084 (=F78).
- L’estoire de Eracles, in RHC Oc 2:310. F19, F20, F26, F38, F51, F58, F69, F71, F72, F74, F77, F78 give croiserie. F50 gives croisie. F70 gives croisiee.
- L’estoire de Eracles, in RHC Oc 2:319. F57 gives croiserie. F73 gives croisee.
- L’estoire de Eracles, in RHC Oc 2:321. F57 gives croiserie. F73 gives croisee.
- L’estoire de Eracles, in RHC Oc 2:343. F57 gives croiserie. F73 gives croisee.
- L’estoire de Eracles, in RHC Oc 2:389. F57, F69, F70, F71, F72, F74, F77, F78 give croiserie. F73 gives croisee.
- L’estoire de Eracles, in RHC Oc 2:413. F57, F69, F71, F72, F74, F77, F78 give croiserie. F73 gives croisee. F70 gives croisiee.
- Peter Edbury, “Ernoul, Eracles and the Collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem,” in The French of Outremer: Communities and Communications in the Crusading Mediterranean, ed. Laura Morreale and Nicholas Paul (Fordham, 2018), 44–67, contains a clear up-to-date exposition of this question at pages 44–46. See also M. Ruth Morgan, The Chronicle of Ernoul and the Continuations of William of Tyre (Oxford, 1973); Peter Edbury, “The French Translation of William of Tyre’s Historia: the Manuscript Tradition,” Crusades 6 (2007): 69–105; idem, “New Perspectives on the Old French Continuations of William of Tyre,” Crusades 9 (2010): 107–13; Massimiliano Gaggero, “La Chronique d’Ernoul: problèmes et méthode d’édition,” Perspectives médiévales 34 (2012) [http://peme.revues.org/1608]; Anna Maria di Fabrizio, “Saggio per una definizione del francese di Oltremare: edizione critica della Continuazione di Acri dell’Historia di Guglielmo di Tiro, con uno studio linguistico e storico” (PhD diss., Università degli studi di Padova/Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, 2013), 6–23; Philip Handyside, “ L’Estoire d’Eracles in Outremer,” in The French of Outremer, 68–85; Peter Edbury, “Continuing the Continuation. Eracles, 1248–1270,” in The Templars, the Hospitallers and the Crusades: Essays in Hommage to Alan Forey, ed. Helen Nicholson and Jochen Burgtorf (Abingdon, 2020), 82–93. Some minor aspects of this tradition, unimportant for our topic, have been omitted.
- For example: Ernoul-Bernard alone: F20, fol. 81v. Continuation of William of Tyre: F50, fol. 422r; F 38, fol. 204v. Ed. Louis de Mas Latrie, Chronique d’Ernoul et de Bernard le Trésorier (Paris, 1871), 410.
- It covers pages 6–435 of the RHC Oc 2. Di Fabrizio, “Saggio per una definizione del francese di Oltremare,” 17; Edbury, “Ernoul, Eracles and the Collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem,” 45; Edbury, “Continuing the Continuation,” 85–86.
- F73, fols. 302v, 303r, 308r, 313r, 318r, 323r; F57, fols. 379r, 380r, 386r, 392r, 398v, 404v. The text was nonetheless quite widely diffused: Massimilano Gaggero, “Succès et tradition manuscrite: les redactions longues de l’Eracles,” in Atti del XXVIII Congresso internazionale di linguistica e filologia romanza, ed. Roberto Antonelli, Martin Glessgen, and Paul Videsott (Strasbourg, 2018), 185–97.
- For example, F69, fols. 331r, 342r–v, 349r; F 70, fols. 316v, 326v, 331v. The text of this last manuscript covering the years 1184–1247 is published in Kasser-Antton Helou, “Étude et édition de l’Estoire d’Outremer d’après le manuscrit Firenze, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana Plutea LXI.10, f°274–336” (PhD diss., Université Paris Sorbonne, 2017), 215–317.
- Scripta refers to a form of a written language containing graphical, grammatical, and lexical variants that can be ascribed to a specific geographical area. It must be used instead of “dialect,” which designates the language spoken in a region, which probably had some influence on the scripta but in a way impossible to determine by historians. Inter-comprehension was high between all the Old French scriptae. This was probably not the case between the dialects. Serge Lusignan, “Langue française et société du XIIIe au XVe siècle,” in Nouvelle histoire de la langue française, ed. Jacques Chaurand (Paris, 1999), 100–9; idem, La langue des rois au Moyen Âge. Le français en France et en Angleterre (Paris, 2004), 62–68.
- F20 is considered very close to the first text of Ernoul-Bernard: Gaggero, “La Chronique d’Ernoul”; Philip Handyside, The Old French William of Tyre (Leiden, 2015), 115.
- A different hand added a continuation to F73 at the end of the 1270s: Edbury, “Continuing the Continuation,” 84.
- Frédéric Godefroy, Dictionnaire de l’ancienne langue française et de tous ses dialectes du IX au XVe siècle, vol. 2 (Paris, 1883), 378c–379a; Französisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 2:1375; Tobler-Lommatzsch Altfranzösisches Wörterbuch, 2:1077; Henri Moisy, Glossaire comparatif anglo-normand (Caen, 1886), 246; on-line Anglo-Norman dictionary: www.anglo-norman.net (consulted 11 November 2020).
- Laisse 66, v. 9 and 115, v. 31: Eugène Martin-Chabot, ed., La Chanson de la croisade albigeoise (Paris, 1976), vol. 3, 1. Eliza Ghil, “Crozada: Avatars of a religious term in thirteenth century poetry,” Tenso 10/2 (1995): 99–109. Dictionnaire de l’Occitan Médiéval en Ligne: http://www.dom-en-ligne.de/ (consulted 11 November 2020).
- Laura Minervini, “Le français dans l’Orient latin (XIIIe–XIVe siècles). Eléments pour la caractérisation d’une scripta du Levant,” Revue de linguistique romane 74 (2010): 119–98; eadem, “What we Know and Don’t Yet Know about Outremer French,” in The French of Outremer, 15–29; di Fabrizio, “Saggio per una definizione del francese di Oltremare”; Helou, “Étude et édition de l’Estoire d’Outremer,” 145–64. On linguistic contacts: Laura Minervini, “La variation lexicale en fonction du contact linguistique: le français dans l’Orient latin,” in La régionalité lexicale du français au Moyen Âge, ed. Martin Glessgen and David Trotter (Strasbourg, 2016), 195–206; and Laura Minervini, “Dinamiche del contatto linguistico nell’Oriente Latino,” in Francofonie Medievali. Lingue et letterature galloromanze fuori di Francia (sec. XII–XV), ed. Anna Maria Babbi et Chiara Concina (Verona, 2016), 323–37. More generally on loanwords, Martin Haspelmath, “Lexical Borrowing: Concepts and Issues,” in Loanwords in the World’s Languages: A Comparative Handbook, ed. Martin Haspelmath and Uri Tadmor (Berlin, 2009), 35–54
- See below and note 29.
- Paris, Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève, ms. 782, fol. 230v, 266v, 293r, 316v, ed. Jules Viard, Les grandes Chroniques de France, 5 vols. (Paris, 1920–28), 5:77, 6:9, 168, 317. Walter of Bibbesworth, La pleinte par entre mis sire Henry de Lacy et sire Wauter de Bybelesworthe pur la croiserie en la Terre seinte, ed. T. Wright and J. O. Haliwell, Reliquiae Antiquae. Scraps from Ancient Manuscripts, Illustrating Chiefly Early English Literature and the English Language, 2 vols. (London, 1845), 1:134. Other fourteenth-century references for croiserie are given in Godefroy, Dictionnaire de l’ancienne langue française, 2:378b; Französisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 2:1375; Tobler-Lommatzsch Altfranzösisches Wörterbuch, 2:1076; on-line anglo-norman dictionary: www.anglo-norman.net/D/ croiserie (consulted 11 November 2020).
- Edbury, “The French Translation of William of Tyre’s Historia.”
- Philip of Novara, Guerra di Federico II in Oriente (1223–1232), ed. Silvio Melani (Naples, 1994), 210. Gaggero, “Succès et tradition manuscrite.”
- F70, fols. 316v, 326v, 331v, ed. Helou, “Étude et édition de l’Estoire d’Outremer,” 286, 301, 309.
- Edbury, “The French Translation of William of Tyre’s Historia”; Helou, “Étude et édition de l’Estoire d’Outremer,” 37–38.
- F69, F71, F72, F73 and F78. Unless of course all these surviving manuscripts were copied from an original only using the form croiserie.
- Brian Joseph, “Lexical Diffusion and Regular Transmission of Language Change in Socio-Historical Context,” in The Handbook of Historical Sociolinguistics, ed. Juan Manuel Hernández Campoy and Juan Camilo Conde Silvestre (Oxford, 2012), 408–26.
- Paul Meyer (ed.), Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal, comte de Striguil et de Pembroke, régent d’Angleterre de 1216 à 1219, 2 vols. (Paris, 1841), 1:264–65 (vv. 7331–7339). The truncated verses are a list of different regions.
- David Trotter, Medieval French Literature and the Crusades, 1100–1300 (Geneva, 1988), 58–66; Michael Markowski, “Crucesignatus. Its Origins and Early Usage,” Journal of Medieval History 10/2 (1984): 157–65; Walter Cosgrove, “Crucesignatus: A Refinement or Merely One More Term among Many?”, in The Crusades: Medieval Worlds in Conflict, ed. Thomas Madden (Farnham, 2010), 95–107. On the legal definition of the crusade: Michel Villey, La Croisade. Essai sur la formation d’une théorie juridique (Caen, 1942), 119–26, 141–58; Christopher Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusades (Toronto, 1998), 30–41, 76–83.
- These counts are made with the searchable text tool of the Internet Archive edition of Eracles. They cannot be considered as accurate and do not take the precise context into consideration. They are only used as a comparative value for the scarcity of “crusade.”
- Michael Lower, The Barons’ Crusade. A Call to Arms and Its Consequences (Philadelphia, 2005).
- This paragraph is mostly based on Edbury, “Ernoul, Eracles and the Collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem”; di Fabrizio, “Saggio per una definizione del francese di Oltremare,” 12–28; Helou, “Étude et édition de l’Estoire d’Outremer,” 10–25.
- Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Feudal Nobility and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1174–1277 (London, 1973).
- Ibid., 159–228; Philip of Novara, Guerra di Federico II, 10–36.
- Riley-Smith, The Feudal Nobility, 22–3, 123, 166–67, 172–73, 319.
- Gabrielle Spiegel, Romancing the Past. The Rise of Vernacular Prose Historiography in Thirteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1993), 1. Pierre Courroux, L’écriture de l’histoire dans les chroniques françaises (XIIe–XVe siècle) (Paris, 2016), 234, comments on and qualifies this position.
- Gabrielle Spiegel, “Medieval Canon Formation and the Rise of Royal Historiography in Old French Prose,” in The Past as Text. The Theory and Practice of Medieval Historiography (Baltimore, 1997), 195–212, at 198–99. Similar conclusions in Riley-Smith, The Feudal Nobility, 136–42.
- Helou, “Étude et édition de l’Estoire d’Outremer,” 115–27. The last letter of the acronym opens the paragraph on the death of Amaury of Lusignan in 1208: F70, fol. 316v = RHC Oc 2:305. The precise meaning of the “B” is problematic, since “beatus” is ordinarily used for dead people which is incompatible with the fact that some manuscripts bearing it were written prior to 1270.
- Jacques Le Goff, Saint Louis (Paris, 1996), 566–70; Bernard Guénée, Comment on écrit l’histoire au XIIIe siècle. Primat et le Roman au Roys (Paris, 2016), 25–27, 86–88.
- Jaroslav Folda, Crusader Art in the Holy Land from the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre, 1187–1291 (Cambridge, 2005), 283–96; Pierre Nobel, La Bible d’Acre. Genèse et exode (Besançon, 2006), XII–XIII. Jens Wollesen, Acre or Cyprus? A New Approach to the Crusader Painting Around 1300 (Berlin, 2014), raises doubt about this usually admitted attribution.
- Philip of Novara, Le livre de forme de plait, ed. Peter Edbury (Nicosia, 2009), 22–23, 26.
- Jean Richard, “La fondation d’une église latine en Orient par saint Louis: Damiette,” Bibliothèque de l’Ecole des Chartes 120 (1954): 39–54.
- Jean de Joinville, Vie de Saint Louis, ed. Jacques Monfrin (Paris, 1998), 74, 80–83.
- Riley-Smith, The Feudal Nobility, 136, 176; Philip of Novara, Guerra di Federico II, 28–29.
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