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Original Articles

Democratic consolidation in the Third World: Many questions, any answers?

Pages 123-141 | Published online: 01 Jul 2010

References

  • Whitehead , L. 1993 . "The Alternatives to "Liberal Democracy" A Latin American Perspective' ” . In Prospects for Democracy Edited by: Held , D. 316 Cambridge
  • Karl , T. 1995 . "The Hybrid Regimes of Central America' . Journal of Democracy , 6 ( 3 ) : 82
  • Bromley , S. 1997 . “ 'Middle East Exceptionalism-Myth or Reality? ” . In Democratization Edited by: Potter , D. , Goldblatt , D. , Kiloh , M. and Lewis , P. 324 Cambridge
  • Diamond , L. 1996 . 'Is the Third Wave Over?' . Journal of Democracy , 7 ( 3 ) : 20 – 37 .
  • There are exceptions in Africa, where new political leaders in both Uganda and Ethiopia came to power 'in violent opposition to established state elites', according to C. Clapham and J. Wiseman, 'Conclusion', in J. Wiseman (ed.), Democracy and Political Change in Africa, London, 1995, p. 226.
  • T. Carothers, 'Democracy without Elusions', Foreign Affairs, Vol. 76, No. 1,1997, p. 93.
  • See S. Nair, "The Miracle Meltdown and the Political Implications of the Asian Currency Crisis: The Case of Malaysia', Paper delivered at International Studies Association conference, University of Vienna, September 1998.
  • Both quotes are from Nelson Kasfir, 'No-party Democracy" in Uganda', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 9, No. 2,1998, p. 50.
  • L. Rahim, 'In Search of the "Asian Way": Cultural Nationalism in Singapore and Malaysia', Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol. 36, No. 3,1998, pp. 54-73.
  • Karl, 'The Hybrid Regimes'.
  • Ibid., p. 84.
  • Ibid., p. 75.
  • Ibid., p. 76.
  • Haynes, 'Democracy'.
  • This term was coined by Samuel Huntington in his book, The Third Wave. Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Norman, OK, 1991. The reference to 1974 is the date when Spain, Portugal and Greece moved from authoritarian to democratic government.
  • N. Kasfir, 'Civil Society, the State and Democracy in Africa', Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol. 36, No. 2,1998, pp. 123-49.
  • R. Luckham and G. White, 'Conclusion. Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave', in R. Luckham and G. White (eds), Democratization in the South. The Jagged Wave, 1996, Manchester, p. 276.
  • P. Burnell, 'Arrivals and Departures: A Preliminary Classification of Democratic Failures and their Explanations', Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 1998, Vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 12.
  • Karl. "The Hybrid Regimes', p. 73.
  • T. Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol. 23, No. 1,1990, p. 17.
  • F. Hagopian, 'After Regime Change. Authoritarian Legacies, Political Representation, and the Democratic Future of Latin America', World Politics, Vol. 45, No. 3,1993, p. 465.
  • P. Chabal, 'A Few Considerations on Democracy in Africa', International Affairs, 1998, Vol. 74, No. 2, p. 300.
  • R. Munck, 'Democratic Discourses and Paradoxes', Bulletin of Latin American Research, Vol. 16, No. 2,1997, pp. 108-27.
  • P. Burnell and P. Calvert, "The Resilience of Democracy: Persistent Practice, Durable Idea', Unpublished MS, 1998, p. 4.
  • Chabal, 'A Few Considerations', p. 300.
  • Clapham and Wiseman, 'Conclusion', p. 227.
  • A. Leftwich, 'Governance, Democracy and Development in the Third World', Third World Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 3,1993, p. 606.
  • G. Hawthorn, 'Constitutional Democracy in the South', in R. Luckham and G. White (eds), Democratization in the South. The Jagged Wave, Manchester, 1996, p. 17.
  • C. Clapham, Third World Politics. An Introduction, Routledge, 1985, p. 41.
  • S. Goldenberg, 'Sharif Wades Deep into Controversy', The Guardian, 16 November 1998.
  • Karl, 'The Hybrid Regimes', p. 74.
  • W. Merkel, "The Consolidation of Post-autocratic Democracies: A Multilevel Model, Democratization, Vol. 5, No. 3,1998, p. 56.
  • S. Calvert and P. Calvert, Politics and Society in the Third World, Hemel Hempstead, 1996, p. 111.
  • S. Decalo, 'Benin: First of the New Democracies', in J. Clark and D. Gardinier (eds), Political Reform in Francophone Africa, Boulder, 1997, p. 56;
  • J. -P. Daloz, 'L'Itineraire du pionnier sur 1'evolution politique beninoise', Politique Africaine, No. 46,1992, pp. 132-7.
  • When I refer to the 'civilian elite' in Ghana, I mean a group of civilian politicians, many of whom have been in power-because of their closeness and loyalty to President Rawlings--since the early eighties. They have gone along with the democratization process primarily because they have personally benefited from it, not because they necessarily believe in democracy per se. For details see J. Haynes, "The Possibility of Democratic Consolidation in Ghana', Democratization, Vol. 6, No. 1,1999, pp. 108-21.
  • This is a reference to the saying in Cameroon that those in power 'eat', that is, may acquire a range of illicit or illegal material benefits by virtue of their official positions. Such a practice may well continue during a period of democracy. See J. -F. Bayart, The State in Africa, London, 1993, p. ix.
  • M. Bratton, and N. van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa. Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective, Cambridge, 1997, p. 278;
  • G. Hawthorn, 'Sub-Saharan Africa', in D. Held (ed.), Prospects for Democracy, Cambridge, 1993, pp. 336-7.
  • J. Linz and A. Stepan, The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes, Baltimore, 1978.
  • T. Carothers, 'Democracy without Illusions', p. 93.
  • For a survey, see F. Hagopian, 'After Regime Change'.
  • J. Haynes, Democracy and Civil Society in the Third World. Politics and New Political Movements, Cambridge, 1997.
  • Ibid., pp. 235-6.
  • L. Diamond, 'Introduction: In Search of Consolidation', in L. Diamond, M. Plattner, Yun-han Chu and Hung-mao Tien (eds), Consolidating the Third World Democracies. Regional Challenges, Baltimore and London, 1997, p. xiv.
  • Zakaria, 'Illiberal Regimes', p. 30.
  • A. Leftwich, 'Forms of the Democratic Developmental State, Democratic Practices and Development Capacity', in M. Robinson and G. White (eds.), The Democratic Developmental State. Political and Institutional Design, Oxford, 1998, p. 56.
  • Zakaria, 'Illiberal Regimes', p. 22.
  • M. Cameron, 'Latin America autogolpes. Dangerous Undertows in the Third Wave of Democratisation, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 2,1998, pp. 219-39.
  • I. Izaguirre, 'Recapturing the Memory of Polities', NACLA Report on the Americas, Vol. 21, No. 6,1998, pp. 28-34;
  • R. Kaplan, 'Was Democracy Just a Moment?', The Atlantic Monthly, December 1997, pp. 55-80. Indonesia under President Habibie seems a good example of a democratizing country with a powerful military unwilling to give up its political role and with the political class too weak or fragmented to force the issue.
  • G. O'Donnell 'On the State, Democratization and some Conceptual Problems: A Latin American View with Glances at some Postcommunist Countries', World Development, Vol. 21, No. 8,1993, pp. 1355-69. Data presented in Tables 2, 3 and 4 suggests that, according to Freedom House, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Panama, and Uruguay had moved from being electoral to liberal democracies by 1998. However, it should be noted that all of these countries, except for Uruguay (with a '3'), had a combined (PR + CL) score of 5, placing them at the margin of fully democratic status.
  • G. O'Donnell 'Delegative Democracy', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 5, No. 1,1994, p. 65.
  • Karl, "The Hybrid Regimes'; Bratton and van de Walle, 'Democratic Experiments in Africa'.
  • Ibid., p. 277.
  • O'Donnell 'Delegative Democracy', p. 55.
  • P. Cammack, 'Democracy and Dictatorship in Latin America, 1930-80', in D. Potter, D. Goldblatt, M. Kiloh and P. Lewis (eds.), Democratization, Cambridge, 1997, p. 172; Clapham and Wiseman, 'Conclusion', p. 222.
  • K. Remmer, 'The Sustainability of Political Democracy. Lesson from South America', Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 29, No. 6, 1996, pp. 611-34; Karl, "The Hybrid Regimes'; R. Joseph, 'Africa, 1990-1997: From abertura to Closure', Journal of Democracy, Vol. 9, No. 2,1998, pp. 3-17; and Chabal, 'A Few Considerations'.
  • Karl, "The Hybrid Regimes', p. 77.
  • Joseph, 'Africa', p. 10; Chabal, 'A Few Considerations', p. 294.
  • Leftwich, 'Governance, Democracy and Development, p. 614.
  • Ibid., p. 607.
  • Ibid., p. 612.
  • C. Leys, "The Crisis in "Development Theory', New Political Economy, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1996, pp. 41-58.

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