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Nationalities Papers
The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity
Volume 28, 2000 - Issue 2
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Original Articles

“You take your oath only once:” Crimea, the black sea fleet, and national identity among Russian officers

Pages 289-316 | Published online: 19 Aug 2010

References

  • Simonsen , Sven Gunnar . 1999 . "Inheriting the Soviet Policy Toolbox. Russia's Dilemma Over Ascriptive Nationality" . Europe-Asia Studies , 51 ( 6 ) : 1069 – 1087 . Russian ethnicity is as a rule here used to describe those with russkiy listed in their "point five" in official documents; the so-called "passport nationality." For a detailed discussion of the issue of nationality in the Soviet Union and Russia, see
  • Szporluk , Roman . 1994 . "Statehood and Nation Building in Post-Soviet Space" ” . In Nation, Identity and Ethnicity in Russia and the New States of Eurasia , Edited by: Szporluk , R. 9 Armonk , NY : M. E. Sharpe .
  • 1993 . Figures from The Military Balance 1993-1994 , 103 London : International Institute for Strategic Studies . The Fleet counted 21 submarines, 35 principal surface combatants and some 240 other surface ships; as well as other forces, including naval aviation (some 244 combat aircraft and 85 combat helicopters), naval infantry and coastal defense forces
  • Huntington , Samuel P. 1957 [1985] . The Soldier and the State. The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations , 79 London : Belknap Press of Harvard University . Among the classic works in this field, see
  • Perlmutter , Amos . 1977 . The Military and Politics in Modern Times. On Professionals, Praetorians, and Revolutionary Soldiers , 2 New Haven : Yale University Press .
  • Markus , Ustina . 1995 . "Black Sea Fleet Dispute Apparently Over" . Transition , 1 ( 13 ) : 30 – 34 . For a more detailed chronology up to this event, see
  • Baranovsky , Vladimir . 1998 . "Russia: Conflicts and Peaceful Settlement of Disputes" ” . In SIPRI Yearbook 1998 , 118 – 120 . Oxford : Oxford University Press . The current state of Crimea and the BSF in Russian-Ukrainian relations was defined in May 1997. On 28 May, the prime ministers of the two countries signed three agreements related to the BSF issue: on the division of the fleet, on Russia's rights to bases in Crimea, and on debt settlement. The parties agreed that Russia's fleet would remain based in Sevastopol, leasing facilities there for 20 years. Then, on 31 May, Presidents Yeltsin and Kuchma signed a Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and Partnership, declaring respect for the respective countries' territorial integrity. Both countries' federal assemblies have since ratified these agreements. For a brief outline of the agreements
  • Sherr , James . 1997 . "Russia-Ukraine Rapprochement The Black Sea Fleet Accords" . Survival , 39 ( 3 ) : 33 – 50 . A thorough analysis is provided in
  • ToIz , Vera . 1998 . "Conflicting 'Homelands Myths' and Nation-State Building in Postcommurrist Russia" . Slavic Review , 57 ( 2 ) : 283 Starovoitova and Tishkov both had left the Yeltsin team by the end of 1992
  • Galeotti , Mark . 1995 . The Age of Anxiety. Security and Politics in Soviet and Post-Soviet Russia , 153 New York : Longman .
  • 1992 . "Galina Starovoytova: Mistakes Are Costly" . Krasnaya zvezda , 22 January FBIS-SOV92-016
  • Solchanyk , Roman . 1992 . "Ukrainian-Russian Confrontation over the Crimea" . RFE/RL Research Report , 10 February : 26 IR920096.RIR
  • 1992 . "Krym v fevrale 1954 goda" . Moskovskie novosti , 2 February This article also features the brief decree from the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet on the transfer
  • 1997 . Chernomorskoy Flat, gorod Sevastopol i nekotorye problemy rossiysko-ukrainskikh otnosheniy. Khronika, dbkumenty, analiz, mneniya (1991-1997 gg.) , 25 Moscow : Nezavisimaya gazeta . "Postanovlenie Verkhovnogo Soveta Rossiyskoy Federatsii. O pravovoy otsenke resheniy vysshikh organov gosudarstvennoy vlasti RSFSR po izmenrriyu statusa Kryma, prinyatykh v 1954 gody." Reprinted
  • Solchanyk , Roman . 1992 . "The Crimean Imbroglio: Kiev and Moscow" . RFE/RL Research Report , 9 October : 6
  • Solchanyk , Roman . 1992 . "Ukrainian-Russian Confrontation over the Crimea" . RFE/RL Research Report , 10 February : 26
  • Larrabee , Stephen F. and Karasik , Theodore W. 1997 . Foreign and Security Policy Decisionmaking under Yeltsin , Santa Monica : National Defense Research Institute/ RAND . For an examination of the role of key institutions in the formation of Russian foreign and security policy, see
  • 1992 . Nasha Rossiya-Vestnik FNS , 21 (45)
  • 1992 . Dagens Neeringsliv , 3 December Estimate made by Associated Press, quoted in
  • ManifestFronta Natsionalnogo Spaseniya (1992).
  • Alksnis , Viktor . 1993 . Vystoim i pobedim , 9 Moscow : SSSR (sic) .
  • Dawson , Jane I. 1997 . "Ethnicity, Ideology and Geopolitics in Crimea" . Communist and Post-Communist Studies , 30 ( 4 ) : 433 Under Kruglov, the FNS has been described as displaying "little caution in dealing with sensitive ethnic and geopolitical issues and [Kruglov's] statements have been highly incendiary"
  • Sherr , James . 1994 . "Russia's Elections-the Military Implications" . Jane's Intelligence Review , February : 67 – 68 . For an analysis of the military's vote
  • 1992 . RFE/RL Daily Brief , 12 August
  • 1993 . RFE/RL Daily Brief , 12 July
  • Ibid.
  • Malcolm , Neil and Pravda , Alex . 1996 . "Introduction" ” . In Internal Factors in Russian Foreign Policy , Edited by: Malcolm , Neil , Pravda , Alex , Allison , Roy and Light , Margot . Oxford : Oxford University Press . For a convincing analysis of phases in the regime's foreign policy, see
  • Melvin , Neil J. 1998 . “ 'The Russians: Diaspora and the End of Empire" ” . In Nations Abroad. Diaspora Politics and International Relations in the Former Soviet Union , Edited by: King , Charles and Melvin , Neil J. Boulder : Westview Press . For a parallel analysis of policy phases related to the diaspora issue
  • Melvin , Neil . 1994 . Forging the New Russian Nation. Russian Foreign Policy and the Russian-Speaking Communities of the Former USSR , Russian and CIS Programme Discussion Paper 50 17 – 22 . London : Royal Institute of Internationa] Affairs . A detailed discussion of the different definitions of Russianness that were employed is provided in
  • Simonsen , S. G. 1996 . "Raising 'the Russian Question': Ethnicity and Statehood-Russkie and Rossiya" . Nationalism and Ethnic Politics , 2 ( 1 ) : 91 – 110 . These terms are also discussed in
  • 1991 . Figures from Natsionalnyy sostav naseleniya SSSR , 82 Moscow : Goskomstat SSSR, Finansy i statistika . As for other groups, the number of Crimean Tatars was 38, 000; of Belarusians 50, 000
  • Bremmer , Ian . 1993 . "Ethnic Issues in Crimea" . RFE/RL Research Report , 2 ( 18 ) : 25 Within a few years, the return of Tatars brought the number much higher; by 1992, it was estimated at 210, 000
  • Zevelev , Igor . 1996 . "Russia and the Russian Diasporas" . Post-Soviet Affairs , 12 ( 3 ) : 266 – 272 . The treaty involving Tajikistan has not been ratified by Russia. For an in-depth discussion of the issue of dual citizenship, see
  • 1994 . "My vsegda otkryty dlya vsekh" . Oppozitsiya ,
  • Dunlop , John B. 1993 . "Russia: Confronting a Loss of Empire" ” . In Nation and Politics in the Soviet Successor States , Edited by: Bremmer , Ian and Taras , Ray . 58 – 60 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . For a discussion of this work
  • Baev , Pavel . 1996 . The Russian Army in a Time of Troubles , London : Sage/PRIO . The best study of Russian military policy in the "near abroad" and the Russian military in general is
  • 1992 . "Ofitserskoe sobranie nastaivaet na edinstsve vooruzhermykh sil" . Izvestiya , 18 January
  • 1992 . "Manevry vokrug ochen vooruzhennykh sil" . Izvestiya , 20 January
  • 1992 . Russian Press Digest , 14 February Krasnaya Zvezda, as reported by
  • Stolyarov , Nikolay . 1992 . "Integratsiya tak zhe tsenna, kak i nezavisimost" . Izvestiya , 16 January Stolyarov was an aide to the Commander in Chief of the CIS forces, and chairman of the personnel committee
  • 1992 . "Soviet Officers Start Political Movement; Aim Is to Preserve Military Unity, Benefits" . Washington Post , 17 January
  • Lopatin , Vladimir . 1992 . "Zashchitit Ii krasnaya armiya belyy dom" . Izvestiya , 13 February
  • 1992 . Voennaya Mysl , May The doctrine was published in a special issue of
  • Dick , Charles J. 1992 . "Initial Thoughts on Russia's Draft Military Doctrine" . Journal of Slavic Military Studies , 5 ( 4 ) : 553
  • Greene , James M. 1993 . "The Peacekeeping Doctrines of the CIS" . Jane's Intelligence Review , 5 ( 4 )
  • Dick . 1994 . "The Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation" . Jane's Intelligence Review , 6 ( 1 ) Dick speculated that differences between the 1992 draft and this doctrine could be explained by the fact that the General Staff had a heavy influence on the earlier one, whereas the latter was mainly the work of the MO
  • Dick, ibid.
  • Jones , Ellen . 1985 . Red Army and Society. A Sociology of the Soviet Military , 180 – 209 . Boston : Unwin Hyman . For a thorough examination of the relationship between Slavs and non-Slavs within the Soviet armed forces
  • Stalbo , Vice-Admiral Kazimir . 1993 . "Prestuplenie veka; obekt i podelniki" . Rossiyskaya gazeta , 24 June Another example of Rossiyskaya gazeta publishing articles at odds with goverment policy over Crimea is the Academy of Sciences member Georgiy Shakhazarov's flaming article "Mne stydno za Prezidenta" ("I Am Ashamed of the President"), published on 29 June 1993, as a response to Yeltsin's criticism of the Supreme Soviet
  • 1993 . "Sevastopol-gorod rossiyskiy" . Pravda , 22 June
  • 1992 . "Dlya chego perevozit chto-to iz Rossii v Rossiyu?" . Nezavisimaya gazeta , 7 April
  • 1992 . Itar-Tass , 5 October FBIS-SOV-92-194
  • Parrish , Scott . 1995 . "Admiral Eduard Baltin: Presiding Reluctantly over the Fleet's Division" . Transition , 1 ( 13 ) : 32 For a profile of Baltin, see
  • 1993 . "I snova predshtormovaya pogoda" . Rossiya , 12-18 May
  • 1993 . Interfax , 14 October FBIS-SOV-93-199
  • 1992 . "Ethnic Turmoil Tears Apart Armed Forces" . The Independent , 12 January At this point. Admiral Kasatonov stated that Ukrainians accounted for 1996 of the officers and 30 of the seamen and petty officers of the BSF
  • 1992 . "Troops Begin to Take the Oath on Ukrainian Territory" . Izvestiya , 7 January FBIS-SOV-92-004
  • Klyamkin , I. , Lapkin , V. and Pantin , V. 1994 . Politicheskiy kurs B. Eltsina: predvaritelnye itogi , 70 – 71 . Moscow : Fond "Obshchestvennoe mnenie" . Two other positions that may also be identified above all with the policies of Vladimir Zhirinovskiy, the winner of the Duma election four months earlier, also scored particularly well in the military. The first was the elimination of the current ethno-territorial divisions of the state for one of a territorial-administrativesystem. Here, the officers were among the top categories, scoring 26, compared with the average 14. The position that Russia should be "cleansed" of aliens (inorodtsy) was supported more by officers than by any other group: 23 versus the 16 average
  • 1992 . "Ukraine: The Crimean Question" . The Economist , 11 January
  • Oldberg , Ingemar . 1996 . "Vad hande med Svarthavsflottan?" . Intemationella Studier , : 12 Establishing beyond doubt the details of the financing of the BSF is very difficult for several reasons; some sources claim Ukraine still made some contributions
  • 1994 . RFE/RL Daily Brief , 24 August
  • Ustina , Markus . 1995 . "Ukraine: Stability amid Political Turnover" . Transition , 15 February : 70
  • 1992 . "Black Sea Fleet-An Insoluble Problem?" . Moscow News , 15 January
  • 1992 . "Agreements Say One Thing, but Another Is Actually Done" . Krasnaya zvezda , 26 February FBIS-SOV-92-042
  • 1992 . 'O chem zabyl mayor Astakhov" . Izvestiya , 3 March
  • Duncan , Peter J. S. 1996 . "Ukraine and the Ukrainians" ” . In The Nationalities Question in the post-Soviet States, , 2nd edn , Edited by: Smith , Graham . 201 London : Longman .
  • 1993 . Financial Times , 11 July as reported in SIPRI Yearbook 1993
  • 1993 . World Armaments and Disarmament , 184 London : SIPRI/Oxford University Press .
  • 1993 . TASS , 29 January
  • Klyamkin , I. , Lapkin , V. and Pantin , V. 1994 . Politicheskiy kurs B. Eltsina: predvaritelnye itogi , 70 – 71 . Moscow : Fond "Obshchestvennoe mnenie" .
  • 1992 . "I. Kapitanets: Kak skazal Eltsin, "Chernomorskiy flot byl, est i budet rossiyskim" . Rossiyskie vesti. , February
  • 1994 . Nesokrushimaya i legendarnaya. V ogne politicheskikh bataliy 1985-1993 gg. Rossiyskiy nezavisimyy institut sotsialnykh i natsionalnykh problem , 328 – 330 . Moscow : Terra .
  • 1992 . Moscow Russian Television Network , 16 March FBIS-SOV-92-052
  • Webber , Mark . 1996 . The International Politics of Russia and the Successor States , 185 Manchester : Manchester University Press .
  • 1992 . Ostankino TV , 23 April Creative intermediate positions were proposed on the way. By April, Shaposhnikov, as well as, e.g.. Admiral Chernavin, spoke of Ukraine's obvious right to create its own navy. For that purpose, it should receive some 10-20 of the BSF, whereas the CIS should have the rest. See
  • 1992 . RFE/RL Daily Brief , 19 June FBIS-SOV-92-080. In June, he suggested that the BSF might be divided up between all the CIS members, and that the other republics, less Ukraine, thereafter "delegate" their shares to Russia
  • Webber , Mark . 1996 . The International Politics of Russia and the Successor States , 185 Manchester : Manchester University Press .
  • Trenin , Dimitry . 1992 . "Divide and Flourish?" . New Times , September
  • 1992 . RFE/RL Daily Brief , 10 January
  • 1992 . "Glavkom dovolen rabotoy, provedennoy s prezidentami" . Izvestiya , 24 March
  • 1993 . "Igrat v politiku armiya ne namerena" . Uteraturnaya gazeta , 17 March
  • Ibid.
  • 1992 . Radio Mayak , 6 January FBIS- SOV-92-004
  • 1992 . Radio Rossii , 7 April FBIS-SOV-92-068-S
  • 1993 . "Igrat v politiku armiya ne namerena" . Literatumaya gazeta , 17 March
  • 1992 . "Black Sea Fleet Is All Russia's, Yeltsin Insists" . LOJ Angeles Times , 10 January
  • 1992 . "I. Kasatonov: Prisyagu na vernost Ukraine, kak i drugim respublikam byvshego suyuza, ya uzhe daval" . Krasnaya zvezda , 4 March Reprinted in Nesokrushimaya i legendarnay, op. cit., pp. 334-335.
  • Shafarevich , Igor . 1993 . "Oborona Sevastopolya prodolzhaetsya" . Uteraturnaya Rossiya , 4 June
  • Kolstø , Pal . 1998 . Nasjonsbygging. Russland og de nye statene i øst , 253 – 254 . Oslo : Universitetsforlaget .
  • 1992 . "The Navy Serves the Whole Fatherland" . Sovetskaya Rossiya , 9 January FBIS-SOV92-006
  • 1992 . "I. Kapitanets: Kak skazal Eltsin, "Chernomorskiiy flot byl, est i budet rossiyskim" . Rossiyskie vesti , 13 February
  • 1992 . RFE/RL DaIy Brief , 3 April Nesokrushimaya i legendarnaya, op. àt., pp. 328-330. Kapitanets retired in April 1992, and was replaced by Admiral Feliks Gromov
  • Pleshakov , Konstantin . 1993 . "Krym: kuda nas tolkayut glupye natsionalisty" . Novoe vremya ,
  • Belitser , Natalia and Bodruk , Oleg . 1998 . "Conflicting Loyalties in the Crimea" ” . In Conflicting Loyalties and the State in Post-Soviet Russia and Eurasia , Edited by: Waller , Michael , Coppieters , Bruno and Malashenko , Alexei . 72 London : Frank Cass .
  • Vasily , Kremen . 1997 . "The East Slav Triangle" ” . In Russia and Europe. The Emerging Security Agenda , Edited by: Baranovsky , Vladimir . 283 Oxford : Oxford University Press .
  • 1993 . "Chem budet Krym: yablokom razdora ili svyazyuyshchim zvenom?" . Kommersant-Daily , 10 July
  • Kovalenko , Vladimir . 1993 . "Govaryat 'flot'-podrazumevayut Krym" . Izvestiya , 29 May
  • 1994 . Ukrayina segodnya , May Reported by
  • Bukkvoll , Tor . 1997 . Ukraine and European Security , 70 London : Chatham House Papers .
  • 1996 . RFE/RL Daily Brief , 25 October
  • Hall , Deborah Yarsike and Gerber , Theodore P. 1996 . "The Political Views of Russian Field Grade Officers" . Post-Soviet Affairs , 12 ( 2 ) : 168
  • ToIz , Vera . 1998 . "Conflicting 'Homelands Myths' and Nation-State Building in Postcommurrist Russia" . Slavic Review , 57 ( 2 ) : 274 – 275 .

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