References
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- Tooze , Roger . 1984 . “ 'Perspectives and theory: a consumers' guide' ” . In Paths to International Political Economy , Edited by: Strange , Susan . Alien & Unwin .
- Rupert , Mark . 1995 . Producing Hegemony: The Politics of Mass Production and American Global Power , 14 Cambridge University Press .
- Murphy , Craig and Tooze , Roger , eds. 1991 . The New International Political Economy , Macmillan .
- Gamble , Andrew . 1995 . 'The New Political Economy' . Political Studies , XLIII ( 3 ) : 516 – 30 .
- Payne , Anthony and Gamble , Andrew . 1996 . “ 'The political economy of regionalism and world order' ” . In Regionalism and World Order , Edited by: Gamble and Payne . Macmillan .
- Hay , Colin and Marsh , David . 1999 . 'Towards a New (International) Political Economy?' . New Political Economy , 4 ( 1 ) : 5 – 22 .
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- Krasner , Stephen . 1994 . 'International Political Economy: Abiding Discord' . Review of International Political Economy , 1 ( 1 ) : 13 – 20 . The neorealist and liberal debates surrounding 'non-state actors' tend to seek out new units of analysis or 'new things to look at' and new 'levels' of analysis or new places to find historical material. See, for example,
- Keohane , Robert . 1984 . After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy , Princeton University Press . From a very different perspective, world-systems theorists tend to look at institutions and actors in addition to the state in order to understand capital accumulation, their basic 'level'. What these approaches do not do, however, is stand back from their assumptions to consider new ways of looking at the units or levels or, indeed, reflect upon how they have conventionally been looked at.
- Stopford , John and Strange , Susan . 1991 . Rival States, Rival Firms: Competition for Worm Market Shares , Cambridge University Press . From a diverse literature on the relationships between states and firms, see, for example:
- Porter , Michael E. 1990 . The Competitive Advantage of Nations , Free Press .
- Strange , Susan . 1988 . States and Markets: An Introduction to IPE , Pinter .
- Ohmae , Kenichi . 1990 . The Borderless World: Power and Strategy in the Interlinked Economy , Fontana .
- Stopford and Strange . “ Rival States, Rival Firms ” . 65
- Piore , Michael and Sabel , Charles . 1984 . The Second Industrial Divide , Basic Books . . Piore and Sabel's analysis of the 'industrial districts' of Emilia Romagna and Baden Wurtemberg adopts an explicitly normative approach to the utility of flexible specialisation for managing the shift to a global strategy.
- Ruigrok , Winfried and Tulder , Rob van . 1995 . The Logic of International Restructuring: The Management of Dependencies in Rival Industrial Complexes , Routledge . For Ruigrok & Van Tulder, 'it is false to suggest that a firm or government has one strategy since it was top management that came to this decision, after an internal and external bargaining process. One should also consider whether it was a unanimous decision, which interests or departments or persons prepared the decision and which opposed it'.
- Moody , Kim . 1997 . Workers in a Lean World.' Unions in the International Economy , Verso . Ibid., p. 6. See also
- Polanyi , Karl . 1957 . The Great Transformation , 46 Beacon Press .
- Ibid., p. 71.
- Pauly , Louis W. and Reich , Simon . 1997 . 'National Structures and Multinational Corporate Behaviour: Enduring Differences in the Age of Globalization' . International Organization , 51 ( 1 ) : 1 – 30 .
- Sally , Razeen . 1994 . 'Multinational Enterprises, Political Economy and Institutional Theory: Domestic Embeddedness in the Context of Internationalisation' . Review of International Political Economy , 1 ( 1 ) : 163 – 92 .
- Sally , Razeen . 1996 . “ 'Public policy and the Janus face of the MNE: national embeddedness and international production' ” . In Globalization and Public Policy , Edited by: Gummett , Philip . Edward Elgar .
- Maurice , M. , Sorge , A. and Warner , M. 1980 . 'Societal Differences in Organising Manufacturing Units: A Comparison of France, West Germany, and Great Britain' . Organization Studies , 1 ( 1 ) : 59 – 86 . Clear statements of the societal systems approach are expressed in:
- Rogers-Hollingsworth , J. and Boyer , Robert , eds. 1997 . Contemporary Capitalism: The Embeddedness of Institutions , Cambridge University Press . For development of these ideas in studies of industrial capitalist change, see, for example,
- Streeck , Wolfgang . 1997 . Citizenship under Regime Competition: The Case of the European Works Councils, Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies Working Paper 207
- Mizruchi , Mark and Schwartz , Michael . 1987 . lntercorporate Relations: Structural Analysis in the Social Sciences , Cambridge University Press .
- Drainville , Andre C. 1994 . 'International Political Economy in the Age of Open Marxism' . Review of International Political Economy , 1 ( I ) : 107
- Gill , Stephen . “ 'Transformation and innovation in the study of world order' ” . In Innovation and Transformation in International Studies Edited by: Gill and Mittelman . 17
- Cox , Robert . 1987 . Production, Power and World Order: Social Forces in the Making of History , 13 Columbia University Press .
- Harrod , Jeffrey . “ 'Social forces and international political economy: joining the two IRs' ” . In Innovation and Transformation in International Studies Edited by: Gill and Mittelman . 112
- For Murphy & Tooze, the IPE orthodoxy 'combines a fairly narrow view of what are the most important questions in the field … with a view of scholarly rigor that is arguably outdated'. The New International Political Economy, p. 5. I use the term orthodoxy here to capture the range of perspectives that continue to reinforce the old orthodoxy by privileging the economic realm in their inquiries. So, for example, such perspectives posit globalisation as primarily an economic and technological process that impacts upon the realms of political and social life.
- Gramsci , Antonio , Hoare , Q. and Smith , G. Nowell , eds. 1971 . Selections from the Prison Notebooks , 171 International Publishers .
- Rupert , Mark . “ 'Globalisation and contested common sense in the United States' ” . In Innovation and Transformation in International Studies Edited by: Gill and Mittelman . 142
- Gramsci . “ Prison Notebooks ” . 172
- See, for example, Drainville, 'International Political Economy in the Age of Open Marxism'; and Germain & Kenny, 'Engaging Gramsci: International Relations Theory and the New Gramscians'.
- Stevis , Dimitris and Boswell , Terry . 1997 . 'Labour: From National Resistance to International Politics' . New Political Economy , 2 ( 1 ) : 93 – 104 .
- Drainville . 'International Political Economy in the Age of Open Marxism' . 111
- Ibid., p. 121.
- Cox . “ Production, Power and World Order ” . 4
- Albert , Michel . 1993 . Capitalism Against Capitalism , Whurr .
- Hart , Jeffrey . 1992 . Rival Capitalists: International Competitiveness in the US, Japan, and Western Europe , Cornell University Press .
- Crouch , Colin and Streeck , Wolfgang , eds. 1997 . Political Economy of Modern Capitalism , Sage .
- Chandler , Alfred D. 1990 . Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism , Harvard University Press . Chandler's historical analysis emphasises the firm as the 'central institution of modem capitalism', but one that is informed by, and shapes 'the historical environment of the nation', p. 11. His study analyses the historical development of modern industrial enterprises within the distinctive social and institutional contexts of the USA, Germany and Britain.
- Cox . “ Production, Power and Worm Order ” . 12
- Wever , Kirsten . 1995 . Negotiating Competitiveness: Employment Relations and Organizational Innovation in Germany and the United States , 69 Harvard Business School Press .
- Streeck , Wolfgang . “ 'Beneficial constraints: on the economic limits of rational voluntarism' ” . In Contemporary Capitalism Edited by: Hollingsworth and Boyer . 203
- Esping-Andersen , Gosta , ed. 1996 . Welfare States in Transition: National Adaptations in Global Economies , 75 Sage .
- Casper , S. and Vitols , S. 1997 . 'The German Model in the 1990s: Problems and Prospects' . Industry and Innovation , 4 ( I ) : 1 – 13 . A central problem in examining the contests surrounding the competitiveness of firms in Modell Deutschland is the blurring of the lines in the debate between the 'unemployment problem' and the 'competitiveness issue' so that the relationship between the two is oversimplified.
- Lipietz , Alain . 1997 . 'The Post-Fordist World: Labour Relations, International Hierarchy and Global Ecology' . Review of International Political Economy , 4 ( 1 ) : 1 – 41 . In terms of competitiveness Germany now attracts the largest amount of FDI in the EU, US$14.7 billion into Germany in the first half of 1997, as compared to US$11.6 billion into Britain (The Financial Times, 10 and 16 August 1997). On the competitiveness of German firms, Lipietz provides useful insights: 'The lesson of the years between 1982 and 1995 is clear. Whatever the policy pursued by the US … the deficit in the balance of goods and services has become structural, to the tune of $10 billion a month. On the other side, whatever the difference in economic climate from the USA, the trade balances of Japan and Germany have stayed positive. From the point of view of intercapitalist competitiveness, negotiated involvement outclasses neo-Taylorism at least on an important range of tradable goods and services.'
- David Marsden, 'Deregulation or Cooperation? The Future of Europe's Labour Markets', Labour: Review of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations, Special Issue—papers from the Tenth World Congress of the International Industrial Relations Association, 31 May to 4 June 1995, p. 71.
- Rubery , Jill . 1993 . “ 'The UK production regime in comparative perspective' ” . Manchester : UMIST . unpublished conference paper,
- Soskice , David . 1996 . German Technology Policy, Innovation, and National Institutional Frameworks, Discussion Paper, Wissenschaftszentrum There is considerable support among German and non-German academics for the notion that the Modell Deutschland continues to be fiercely contested but that this contestation reflects 'old' social practices and not the 'new' dictates of neoliberal globalisation. See, for example, Marsden, 'Deregulation or Cooperation? The Future of Europe's Labour Markets';
- Sorge , Arndt . 1991 . 'Strategic Fit and the Societal Effect: Interpreting Cross-national Comparisons of Technology, Organisation, and Human Resources' . Organisation Studies , 12 ( 2 ) : 161 – 90 .
- Becker , Carsten and Vitols , Sigurt . 'An innovation crisis in German industry?: the German innovation system in the 1990s' . unpublished paper presented at the workshop, Modell Deutschland in the 1990s: Problems and Prospects . 27-28 June . Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin .
- Lane , Christel . 1996 . “ 'Industrial reorganization in Europe: patterns of convergence and divergence in Germany, France and Britain' ” . In Comparative Management , Edited by: Warner , M. Routledge .
- Lane , Christel . 1997 . “ 'The social constitution of supplier relations in Britain and Germany: an institutionalist analysis' ” . In The Changing European Firm: Limits to Convergence , Edited by: Whitley , R. and Kristensen , P. Hull . 271 – 304 . Routledge .
- Bundesbank , Deutsche . 1997 . 'Die Aktie als Finanzierungs- und Anlageinstrument' . Monatsbericht , 49 ( 1 )
- Vitols , Sigurt and Woolcock , Stephen . 'Developments in the German and British corporate governance systems' . discussion paper prepared for workshop . June . Berlin : Corporate Governance in Britain and Germany, Wissenschaftszentrum .
- Lazonick , W. and O'Sullivan , M. 1996 . 'Organization, Finance, and International Competition' . Industrial and Corporate Change , 5 ( 1 ) : 33
- Soskice . “ German Technology Policy, Innovation, and National Institutional Frameworks ” . 17
- Gill , Stephen . 1991 . 'Reflections on Global Order and Socio-historical Time' . Alternatives , 16 : 307
- Jackson , Greg . 'Corporate governance in Germany and Japan: development within national and international contexts' . paper prepared for conference, Germany and Japan: Nationally Embedded Capitalism in a Global Economy . 10-13 April . University of Washington-Seattle .
- Deeg , R. 1997 . 'Banks and Industrial Finance in the 1990s' . Industry and Innovation , 4 ( 1 ) : 65 – 92 .
- Gill . 'Reflections on Global Order and Socio-historical Time' . 306
- Schroder , U. 1996 . 'Corporate Governance in Germany: The Changing Role of the Banks' . German Politics , 5 ( 3 ) : 356 – 70 . Jackson, 'Corporate governance in Germany and Japan'; Vitols & Woolcock, 'Developments in the German and British corporate governance systems'; and
- Schroder . 'Corporate Governance in Germany' . 357
- See, for example, Mizruchi & Schwartz, Intercorporate Relations, who emphasise the fragmented ownership of British firms. Large companies tend to have the majority of their shares held by multiple shareholders, usually financial intermediary groups such as pension funds and bank trust departments. The ownership profile is thus too diverse to act as a coordinated set of interests and can therefore only respond to financial indicators of performance.
- Rubery . 'The UK production regime in comparative perspective' . 10
- Lazonick and O'Sullivan . 'Organization, Finance, and International Competition' . 33
- Harrod . 'Social forces and international political economy: joining the two IRs' . 109 For Harrod, the study of Industrial Relations as 'a field in which the focus was work and its relationship to production' has had much to offer the scholar of IPE through its absolute focus on social forces as 'the identifiable social energy precipitated by production'.
- Cox , Robert W. 1970 . “ 'Labor and transnational relations' ” . In Transnational Relations and World Politics , Edited by: Keohane , Robert and Nye , Joseph . Harvard University Press .
- Hyman , Richard . 1997 . 'The Future of Employee Representation' . British Journal of Industrial Relations , 35 ( 3 ) : 311
- It is important to consider here that embedded industrial relations practices may serve precisely to focus social contestation and provide a vent for potential conflict. As Hyman emphasises, industrial relations institutions may provide a 'filter' for fragmented grievances so that effectively the workforce is represented by a single 'coherent employee voice'. Ibid., p. 310.
- Cox . “ Production, Power and Worm Order ” . 25
- Pauly and Reich . 'National Structures and Multinational Corporate Behaviour' . 6
- Hyman, 'The Future of Employee Representation'.
- Glasman , Maurice . 1996 . Unnecessary Suffering: Managing Market Utopia , Verso .
- Lipietz . 'The Post-Fordist World' . 4
- See Streeck, 'Beneficial constraints'.
- Stumpfe , Werner . 1997 . President of Gesamtmetall . European Industrial Relations Review , : 7
- Silvia , Stephen J. 1997 . 'German Unification and Emerging Divisions within German Employers' Associations' . Comparative Politics , 29 ( 2 ) : 187 – 211 .
- Williams , S. 1997 . 'The Nature of Some Recent Trade Union Modernization Policies in the UK' . British Journal of Industrial Relations , 35 ( 4 ) : 498
- Hyman . 'The Future of Employee Representation' . 314
- Millward , Neil . 1994 . The New Industrial Relations? , Policy Studies Institute .
- Streeck , Wolfgang . 1984 . Industrial Relations in West Germany: A Case Study of the Car Industry , Heinemann .
- See Moody, Workers in a Lean World
- Crouch , Colin . 1997 . 'Skills-based Full Employment: The Latest Philosopher's Stone' . British Journal of Industrial Relations , 35 ( 3 ) : 375
- Ibid.
- Bienefeld , Manfred . 1991 . “ 'Karl Polanyi and the contradictions of the 1980s' ” . In The Legacy of Karl Polanyi: Market, State and Society at the End of the Twentieth Century , Edited by: Mendell , M. and Salee , D. 4 Macmillan .
- Crouch . 'Skills-based Full Employment' . 375
- 1997 . Independent on Sunday , 19 October
- Wever . “ Negotiating Competitiveness ” . 63
- Eden , Lorraine . 1991 . 'Bringing the Firm Back in: Multinationals in International Political Economy' . Millennium: Journal of International Studies , 20 ( 2 ) The renewed emphasis on the firm in IPE has led some scholars to make inroads into more critical accounts of the firm as both concept and social arena. See, for example,
- Tetreault , Mary Ann . 1999 . 'Out of Body Experiences: Migrating Firms and Altered States' . Review of International Political Economy , 6 ( 1 )