Executive Function Outcomes Following Traumatic Brain Injury in Young Children: A Five Year Follow-Up

REFERENCES

• Anderson , P. 2002 . Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. . Child Neuropsychology , 8 : 71 – 82 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , V. A. 1998 . Assessing executive functions in children: Biological, psychological, and developmental considerations. . Neuropsychological Rehabilitation , 8 : 319 – 349 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , V. A. , Anderson , P. , Northam , E. , Jacobs , R. and Catroppa , C. 2001 . Development of executive functions through late childhood and adolescence in an Australian sample. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 20 : 385 – 406 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , V. A. , Anderson , P. , Northam , E. , Jacobs , R. and Mikiewicz , O. 2002 . Relationships between cognitive and behavioral measures of executive function in children with brain disease. . Child Neuropsychology , 8 : 231 – 240 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , V. A. and Catroppa , C. 2005 . Recovery of executive skills following pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI): A 2 year follow-up. . Brain Injury , 19 : 459 – 470 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , V. A. , Catroppa , C. , Morse , S. A. and Haritou , F. 1999 . Functional memory skills following traumatic brain injury in young children. . Pediatric Rehabilitation , 3 : 159 – 166 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anderson , V. A. , Catroppa , C. , Morse , S. A. , Haritou , F. and Rosenfeld , J. 2005 . Functional plasticity or vulnerability after early brain injury. . Pediatrics , 116 : 1374 – 1382 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , V. A. and Moore , C. 1995 . Age at injury as a predictor of outcome following pediatric head injury: A longitudinal perspective. . Child Neuropsychology , 1 : 187 – 202 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , V. A. , Morse , S. A. , Catroppa , C. , Haritou , F. and Rosenfeld , J. V. 2004 . Thirty month outcome from early childhood head injury: A prospective analysis of neurobehavioural recovery. . Brain , 127 : 2608 – 2621 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , V. A. , Northam , E. , Hendy , J. and Wrennall , J. 2001 . Developmental neuropsychology: A clinical approach , East Sussex, , UK : Psychology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Andrews , T. K. , Rose , F. D. and Johnson , D. A. 1998 . Social and behavioural effects of traumatic brain injury in children. . Brain Injury , 12 : 133 – 138 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azouvi , P. , Couillet , J. , Leclercq , M. , Martin , Y. , Asloun , S. and Rousseaux , M. 2004 . Divided attention and mental effort after severe traumatic brain injury. . Neuropsychologia , 42 : 1260 – 1268 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes , M. A. and Dennis , M. 2001 . Knowledge-based inferencing after childhood head injury. . Brain & Language , 76 : 253 – 265 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell , M. and Fox , N. 1992 . The relations between frontal brain electrical activity and cognitive development during infancy. . Child Development , 63 : 1142 – 1163 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bigler , E. D. 2001 . The lesion(s) in traumatic brain injury: Implications for clinical neuropsychology. . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 16 : 95 – 131 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brookshire , B. , Levin , H. S. , Song , J. and Zhang , L. 2004 . Components of executive function in typically developing and head-injured children. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 25 : 61 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruns , J. J. and Hauser , W. 2003 . The epidemiology of traumatic brain injury: A review. . Epilepsia , 44 : 2 – 10 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casey , B. J. , Giedd , J. N. and Thomas , K. M. 2000 . Structural and functional brain development and its relation to cognitive development. . Biological Psychology , 54 : 241 – 257 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capruso , D. X. and Levin , H. S. 1992 . Cognitive impairment following closed head injury. . The Neurology of Trauma , 10 : 879 – 893 .
   Google Scholar
• Catroppa , C. and Anderson , V. A. 2004 . Recovery and predictors of language skills two years following pediatric traumatic brain injury. . Brain & Language , 88 : 68 – 78 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catroppa , C. and Anderson , V. A. 2003 . Recovery and predictors of intellectual ability two years following paediatric traumatic brain injury. . Neuropsychological Rehabilitation , 13 : 517 – 536 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catroppa , C. and Anderson , V. A. 2002 . Recovery in memory function in the first year following TBI in children. . Brain Injury , 16 : 369 – 384 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catroppa , C. and Anderson , V. A. 1999 . Recovery of educational skills following paediatric traumatic brain injury. . Pediatric Rehabilitation , 3 : 167 – 175 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Catroppa , C. , Anderson , V. A. and Stargatt , R. 1999 . A prospective analysis of the recovery of attention following pediatric head injury. . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 5 : 48 – 57 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cattelani , R. , Lombardi , F. , Brianti , R. and Mazzucchi , A. 1998 . Traumatic brain injury in childhood: Intellectual, behavioural and social outcome into adulthood. . Brain Injury , 12 : 283 – 297 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman , S. B. and McKinnon , L. 2000 . Discussion of developmental plasticity: Factors affecting cognitive outcome after pediatric traumatic brain injury. . Journal of Communication Disorders , 33 : 333 – 344 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman , S. B. , McKinnon , L. , Levin , H. S. , Song , J. , Meier , M. C. and Chiu , S. 2001 . Longitudinal outcome of verbal discourse in children with traumatic brain injury: Three-year follow-up. . Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation , 16 : 441 – 455 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman , S. B. , Sparks , G. , Levin , H. S. , Dennis , M. , Roncadin , C. and Zhang , L. 2004 . Discourse macrolevel processing after severe pediatric traumatic brain injury. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 25 : 37 – 60 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chugani , H. T. 1998 . A critical period of brain development: Studies of cerebral glucose utilization with PET. . Preventative Medicine , 27 : 184 – 188 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. 1992 . A power primer. . Psychological Bulletin , 112 : 155 – 159 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniel , A. 1983 . Power, privelege and prestige: Occupations in Australia , Melbourne, , Australia : Longman-Cheshire .
   Google Scholar
• Dennis , M. 1989 . “ Language and the young damaged brain ” . In Clinical neuropsychology and brain function: Research, measurement and practice , Edited by: Boll , T. and Bryant , B. 89 – 123 . Washington, DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Dennis , M. and Barnes , A. 2000 . Speech acts after mild or severe childhood head injury. . Aphasiology , 14 : 391 – 406 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis , M. , Barnes , M. A. , Donnelly , R. E. , Wilkinson , M. and Humphreys , R. P. 1996 . Appraising and managing knowledge: Metacognitive skills after childhood head injury. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 12 : 77 – 103 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis , M. , Purvis , K. , Barnes , M. A. , Wilkinson , M. and Winner , E. 2001 . Understanding of literal truth, ironic criticism and deceptive praise following childhood head injury. . Brain & Language , 78 : 1 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donders , J. and Hoffman , N. M. 2002 . Gender differences in learning and memory after pediatric traumatic brain injury. . Neuropsychology , 16 : 491 – 499 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans , D. W. , Lewis , M. D. and Iobst , E. 2004 . The role of the orbitofrontal cortex in normally developing compulsive-like behaviors and obsessive-compulsive disorder. . Brain & Cognition , 55 : 220 – 234 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ewing-Cobbs , L. , Barnes , M. , Fletcher , J. M. , Levin , H. S. , Swank , P. R. and Song , J. 2004 . Modeling of longitudinal academic achievement scores after pediatric traumatic brain injury. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 25 : 107 – 133 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ewing-Cobbs , L. , Prasad , M. R. , Landry , S. H. , Kramer , L. and DeLeon , R. 2004 . Executive functions following traumatic brain injury in young children: A preliminary analysis. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 26 : 487 – 512 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fenwick , T. and Anderson , V. A. 1999 . Impairments of attention following childhood traumatic brain injury. . Child Neuropsychology , 5 : 213 – 223 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuster , F. 1993 . Frontal lobes. . Current Opinion in Neurobiology , 3 : 160 – 165 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gioia , G. A. and Isquith , P. K. 2004 . Ecological assessment of executive function in traumatic brain injury. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 25 : 135 – 158 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gioia , G. A. , Isquith , P. K. , Guy , S. C. and Kenworthy , L. 2000 . Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. . Child Neuropsychology , 6 : 235 – 238 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gioia , G. A. , Isquith , P. K. , Kenworthy , L. and Barton , R. M. 2002 . Profiles of everyday executive function in acquired and developmental disorders. . Child Neuropsychology , 8 : 121 – 137 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenspan , A. I. and MacKenzie , E. J. 1994 . Functional outcome after pediatric head injury. . Pediatrics , 94 : 425 – 433 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hanten , G. , Zhang , L. and Levin , H. S. 2002 . Selective learning in children after traumatic brain injury: A preliminary study. . Child Neuropsychology , 8 : 107 – 120 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawley , C. A. 2004 . Behaviour and school performance after brain injury. . Brain Injury , 18 : 645 – 659 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman , N. , Donders , J. and Thompson , E. H. 2000 . Novel learning abilities after traumatic head injury in children–A practical scale. . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 15 : 47 – 59 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huttenlocher , P. R. and Dabholkar , A. S. 1997 . Developmental anatomy of the prefrontal cortex: Evolution, neurobiology, and behavior , Baltimore : Brookes .
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs , R. and Anderson , V. A. 2002 . Planning and problem solving skills following focal frontal brain lesions in childhood: Analysis using the Tower of London. . Child Neuropsychology , 8 : 93 – 106 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janusz , J. A. , Kirkwood , M. W. , Yeates , K. O. and Taylor , H. G. 2002 . Social problem-solving skills in children with traumatic brain injury: Long-term outcomes and prediction of social competence. . Child Neuropsychology , 8 : 179 – 194 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jordan , F. M. and Ashton , R. 1996 . Language performance of severely closed head injured children. . Brain Injury , 10 : 91 – 99 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirkwood , M. , Janusz , J. , Yeates , K. O. , Taylor , H. G. , Wade , S. L. and Stancin , T. 2000 . Prevalence and correlates of depressive symptoms following traumatic brain injuries in children. . Child Neuropsychology , 6 : 195 – 209 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klingberg , T. , Vaidya , C. J. , Gabrieli , J. D. E. , Moseley , M. E. and Hedehus , M. 1999 . Myelination and organization of the frontal white matter in children: A diffusion tensor MRI study. . Neuroreport , 10 : 2817 – 2821 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolb , B. , Gibb , R. and Gorny , G. 2000 . Cortical plasticity and the development of behavior after early frontal cortical injury. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 18 : 423 – 444 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraus , J. F. 1995 . “ Epidemiological features of brain injury in childhood: Occurrence, children at risk, causes and manner of injury, severity and outcomes ” . In Traumatic head injury in children , Edited by: Broman , S. H. and Michel , M. E. 22 – 39 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lehnung , M. , Leplow , B. , Herzog , A. , Benz , B. , Ritz , A. and Stolze , H. 2001 . Children's spatial behavior is differentially affected after traumatic brain injury. . Child Neuropsychology , 7 : 59 – 71 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin , H. S. , Culhane , K. A. , Hartmann , J. , Evankovich , K. and Mattson , A. J. 1991 . Developmental changes in performance on tests of purported frontal lobe functioning. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 7 : 377 – 395 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin , H. S. , Hanten , G. , Zhang , L. , Swank , P. R. , Ewing-Cobbs , L. and Dennis , M. 2004 . Changes in working memory after traumatic brain injury in children. . Neuropsychology , 18 : 240 – 247 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin , H. S. , Hanten , G. , Zhang , L. , Swank , P. R. and Hunter , J. 2004 . Selective impairment of inhibition after TBI in children. . Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology , 26 : 589 – 597 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin , H. S. , Mendelsohn , D. B. , Lilly , M. A. , Fletcher , J. M. , Culhane , K. A. and Chapman , S. B. 1994 . Tower of London performance in relation to Magnetic Resonance Imaging following closed head injury in children. . Neuropsychology , 8 : 171 – 179 .
   Google Scholar
• Levin , H. S. , Song , J. , Ewing-Cobbs , L. , Chapman , S. B. and Mendelsohn , D. 2001 . Word fluency in relation to severity of closed head injury, associated frontal brain lesions, and age at injury in children. . Neuropsychologia , 39 : 122 – 132 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin , H. S. , Song , J. , Ewing-Cobbs , L. , Chapman , S. B. , Mendelsohn , D. B. and Bruce , D. 1996 . Dimensions of cognition measured by the Tower of London and other cognitive tasks in head injured children and adolescents. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 12 : 17 – 34 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin , H. S. , Song , J. , Ewing-Cobbs , L. and Roberson , G. 2001 . Porteus maze performance following traumatic brain injury in children. . Neuropsychology , 15 : 557 – 567 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin , H. S. , Song , J. , Scheibel , R. S. , Fletcher , J. M. , Harward , H. and Lilly , M. 1997 . Concept formation and problem-solving following closed head injury in children. . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 3 : 598 – 607 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Levin , H. S. , Zhang , L. , Dennis , M. , Ewing-Cobbs , L. , Schachar , R. and Max , J. 2004 . Psychosocial outcome of TBI in children with unilateral frontal lesions. . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 10 : 305 – 316 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luis , C. A. and Mittenberg , W. 2002 . Mood and anxiety disorders following pediatric traumatic brain injury: A prospective study. . Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology , 24 : 270 – 280 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mangeot , S. , Armstrong , K. , Colvin , A. N. , Yeates , K. O. and Taylor , H. G. 2002 . Long-term executive function deficits in children with traumatic brain injuries: Assessment using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF). . Child Neuropsychology , 8 : 271 – 284 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manly , T. , Robertson , I. H. , Anderson , V. A. and Nimmo-Smith , I. 1999 . Test of everyday attention for children , Bury St. Edmunds, , England : Thames Valley Test Company Limited .
   Google Scholar
• Mathias , J. L. , Bigler , E. D. , Jones , N. R. , Bowden , S. C. , Barrett-Woodbridge , M. and Brown , G. C. 2004 . Neuropsychological and information processing performance and its relationship to white matter changes following moderate and severe traumatic brain injury: A preliminary study. . Applied Neuropsychology , 11 : 134 – 152 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald , B. C. , Flashman , L. A. and Saykin , A. J. 2003 . Executive dysfunction following traumatic brain injury: Neural substrates and treatment strategies. . Neurorehabilitation , 17 : 333 – 344 .
   Google Scholar
• McKinlay , A. , Dalrymple-Alford , J. C. , Norwood , L. J. and Fergusson , D. M. 2002 . Long term psychosocial outcomes after mild head injury in early childhood. . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery Psychiatry , 73 : 281 – 288 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noller , P. 1988 . ICPS Family Functioning Scales Unpublished manuscript, University of Queensland
   Google Scholar
• Nybo , T. and Koskiniemi , M. 1999 . Cognitive indicators of vocational outcome after severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) in childhood. . Brain Injury , 13 : 759 – 766 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Connor , P. 2002 . Hospitalization due to traumatic brain injury (TBI), Australia 1997–1998 , Adelaide, , Australia : AIHW .
   Google Scholar
• Passler , M. , Isaac , W. and Hynd , G. 1985 . Neuropsychological development of behavior attributed to frontal lobe functioning in children. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 1 : 349 – 370 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennington , B. F. and Ozonoff , S. 1996 . Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. . Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry , 37 : 51 – 87 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pentland , L. , Todd , J. A. and Anderson , V. A. 1998 . The impact of head injury severity on planning ability in adolescence: A functional analysis. . Neuropsychological Rehabilitation , 8 : 301 – 317 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettersen , L. 1991 . Sensitivity to emotional cues and social behavior in children and adolescents after head injury. . Perceptual Motor Skills , 73 : 1139 – 1151 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roncadin , C. , Guger , S. , Archibald , J. , Barnes , M. and Dennis , M. 2004 . Working memory after mild, moderate, or severe childhood closed head injury. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 25 : 21 – 36 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schachar , R. , Levin , H. S. , Max , J. E. , Purvis , K. and Chen , S. 2004 . Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms and response inhibition after closed head injury in children: Do preinjury behavior and injury severity predict outcome? . Developmental Neuropsychology , 25 : 179 – 198 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Segalowitz , S. J. and Davies , P. L. 2004 . Charting the maturation of the frontal lobe: An electrophysiological strategy. . Brain & Cognition , 55 : 116 – 133 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slomine , B. S. , Gerring , J. P. , Grados , M. A. , Vasa , R. , Brady , K. D. and Christensen , J. R. 2002 . Performance on measures of “executive function” following pediatric taumatic brain injury. . Brain Injury , 16 : 759 – 772 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smidt , D. , Jacobs , R. and Anderson , V. 2004 . The Object Classification Task for Children (OCTC): A measure of concept generation and mental flexibility in early childhood. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 26 : 385 – 402 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sparrow , S. , Balla , D. A. and Cicchetti , D. V. 1984 . Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales: Interview edition. Survey form manual. , Circle Pines, MN : American Guidance Services .
   Google Scholar
• Stancin , T. , Drotar , D. , Taylor , H. G. , Yeates , K. O. , Wade , S. L. and Minich , N. M. 2002 . Health-related quality of life of children and adolescents after traumatic brain injury. . Pediatrics , 109 : 308 – 309 .
   Google Scholar
• Stanton , B. R. 1999 . Does family functioning affect outcome in children with neurological disorders? . Pediatric Rehabilitation , 3 : 193 – 199 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Taylor , H. G. . Developmental changes following early brain insults: The importance of the environment . Paper presented at the International Neuropsychological Meeting . Dublin.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , H. G. and Alden , J. 1997 . Age-related differences in outcomes following childhood brain insults: An introduction and overview. . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 3 : 555 – 567 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Taylor , H. G. , Yeates , K. O. , Wade , S. L. , Drotar , D. , Klein , S. K. and Stancin , T. 1999 . Influences on first-year recovery from traumatic brain injury in children. . Neuropsychology , 13 : 76 – 89 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , H. G. , Yeates , K. O. , Wade , S. L. , Drotar , D. , Stancin , T. and Minich , N. 2002 . A prospective study of short- and long-term outcomes after traumatic brain injury in children: Behavior and achievement. . Neuropsychology , 16 : 15 – 27 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teasdale , G. and Jennett , B. 1974 . Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. . Lancet , 2 : 81 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson , N. M. , Francis , D. J. , Stuebing , K. K. , Fletcher , J. M. , Ewing-Cobbs , L. and Miner , M. E. 1994 . Motor, visual-spatial, and somatosensory skills after closed head injury in children and adolescents: A study of change. . Neuropsychology , 8 : 333 – 342 .
   Google Scholar
• Tremont , G. , Mittenberg , W. and Miller , L. J. 1999 . Acute intellectual effects of pediatric head trauma. . Child Neuropsychology , 5 : 104 – 115 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welsh , M. C. , Pennington , B. F. and Groisser , D. 1991 . A normative-developmental study of executive function: A window on prefrontal function in children. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 7 : 131 – 149 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weschler , D. 1992 . Manual for the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children: Version III (Australian Adaptation) , New York : The Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Willmott , C. , Anderson , V. A. and Anderson , P. 2000 . Attention following pediatric head injury: A developmental perspective. . Developmental Neuropsychology , 17 : 361 – 380 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar